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November 29, 2023 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Kauwā

At the time of European contact in 1778, Hawaiian society comprised four levels. People were born into specific social classes; social mobility was not unknown, but it was extremely rare.

The kapu system separated people into four groups: Aliʻi, the ruling class of chiefs and nobles (kings, high chiefs, low chiefs); Kahuna, the priests (who conducted religious ceremonies at the heiau and elsewhere) and master craftsmen; Maka‘āinana, commoners (the largest group) those who lived on the land; and Kauwā (or Kauā), social outcasts, “untouchables”.

“[T]he Paramount Chief (Ali’i Nui) fulfilled the role of father to this people … At the other extreme of the social order were the despised kauwā, who were outcasts …”

“… compelled to live in a barren locality apart from the tribesmen or people “belonging to the land” (ma-ka-‘aina-na), and whose only function and destiny was to serve as human sacrifices to the Ali’i’s war god Ku when a Luakini or war temple was dedicated in anticipation of a season of fighting.” (Handy & Pukui)

“The kauwā class were so greatly dreaded and abhorred that they were not allowed to enter any house but that of their master, because they were spoken of as the aumakua of their master.”

“Men and women who were kauwā were said to be people from the wild woods (nahelehele), from the lowest depths (no lalo liio loa).” (Malo) The word kauwā “was used in historic times to mean servant, but originally it meant outcast.”

“There was a landless class of people who were probably the descendants of aborigines found already settled in the Hawaiian Islands when the migrants from the south came and their chiefs established themselves as overlords.”

“In the district of Ka‘u on the island of Hawaii the Kauwā were confined to a small infertile reservation. This reservation was the dry, rocky west half of the ahupua’a named Ninole, which is near Punalu‘u.”

“For a makaainana or ali‘i to walk on kauwā land was forbidden. Whoever did so became defiled and was put to death. However, a kauwā, with head covered under a scarf of tapa and eyes downcast, might go to the chief in case of need.”

“When in need of a victim for human sacrifice at the war temple a priest would go to the boundary of the kauwā reservation and summon a victim. The man summoned could not refuse.”

“If a kauwā woman gave birth to a child sired by an ali’i the child was strangled; and the same was true of a child born to a chiefess whose father was a kauwā.” (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

Kepelino gives a detailed description of kauwā under the title ‘The Slave Class,’ as follows: “The slaves or kauwā were people set apart from the rest and treated like filthy beasts. They could not associate with other men. They were called ‘corpses,’ that is, foul-smelling things.”

“They were not allowed to marry outside their own class. If they were married and bore children to one not a slave, then all those children would have their necks wrung lest disgrace come to the family and the blot be handed down to their descendants.”

“The slaves were considered an evil here in Hawaii. They increased rapidly, – a thousand or more there were. They continued to give birth from the time of their ancestors until the present time, they could not become extinct.”

“They are not a laboring class; they were not selected to serve the chiefs; but on the tabu days of the heiau [anciently] they were killed as offering to the idols.”

“The slaves occupied themselves with their own work. They had a separate piece of land given them by their masters where they built houses and sought a livelihood for themselves by farming and fishing.”

“This land was tabu. Those not slaves could not till there or use its products. The commoner who trespassed on the land was put to death.”

“The slaves were so tabu that they could not bare their heads but must cover themselves with a wide piece of tapa with great humility and never look up.”

“They were so tabu that they were not permitted to enter the house-lot of other men. If they wished for anything they came outside the enclosure and spoke. But to the place of their Chief who was their master they were at liberty to go.”

“The slaves were very different in old times, a humble people, kind and gentle. They worked for a living much like those who work under contract, but they were despised in Hawaii and are so to this day, they are not regarded as like other people.”

“There were slave lands in every district of the islands, as, for example, Ka-lae-mamo in Kona on Hawaii, Makeanehu in Kohala, and so forth.” (Kepelino)

“When the ancient system of kapu was abandoned in Liholiho’s reign, the humiliation of the kauwā ended, and they merged with the maka‘ainana gradually over the years.” (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

November 28, 2023 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Dogs

The dog was present at the time of European discovery of Polynesia in only a few archipelagoes. The Tuamotus, Society Islands, Hawaiian Islands, and New Zealand had dogs. (Luomala)

The generalized description of the native dog by J. R. Forster (1778) notes, “The dogs of the South Sea isles are of a singular race: they most resemble the common cur, but have a prodigious large head, remarkably little eyes, prick-ears, long hair and a short bushy tail.”

“They are chiefly fed with fruit at the Society Isles; but in the low isles and New Zealand, where they are the only domestic animals, they live upon fish.”

“They are exceedingly stupid, and seldom or never bark, only howl now and then; have the sense of smelling in a very low degree, and are lazy beyond measure …”

“… they are kept by the natives chiefly for the sake of their flesh, of which they are very fond, preferring it to pork; they also make use of their hair, in various ornaments …”

“The quadrupeds in [the Hawaiian Islands], as in all the other islands that have been discovered in the South Sea, are confined to three sorts, dogs, hogs, and rats. The dogs are of the same species with those of Otaheite, having short crooked legs, long backs, and pricked ears.”

“I did not observe any variety in them, except in their skins; some having long and rough hair, and others being quite smooth. They are about the size of a common turnspit; exceedingly sluggish in their nature; though perhaps this may be more owing to the manner in which they are treated, than to any natural disposition in them.”

“They are in general fed, and left to herd with the hogs; and I do not recollect one instance in which a dog was made companion in the manner we do in Europe.”

“Indeed, the custom of eating them is an insuperable bar to their admission into society; and as there is neither beasts of prey in the island, nor objects of chace, it is probable that the social qualities of the dog, its fidelity, attachment, and sagacity, will remain unknown to the natives.”

“The number of dogs in these islands did not appear to be nearly equal in proportion to those in Otaheite. But, on the other hand, they abound much more in hogs; and the breed is of a larger and weightier kind.”

“The supply of provisions of this kind, which we got from them, was really astonishing. We were near four months either cruising off the coast, or in harbour at Owhyhee.”

“During all this time, a large allowance of fresh pork was constantly served to both crews; so that our consumption was computed at about sixty puncheons of five hundred weight each.”

“Besides this, and the incredible waste, which, in the midst of such plenty, was not to be guarded against, sixty puncheons more were salted for sea-store. The greatest part of this supply was drawn from the island of Owhyhee alone, and yet we could not perceive that it was at all drained, or even that the abundance had any way decreased.”

“The hogs, dogs, and fowls, which were the only tame or domestic animals that we found here, were all of the same kind that we met with at the South Pacific islands. There were also small lizards; and some rats, resembling those seen at every island at which we had as yet touched.”

“Of animal food, they can be in no want; as they have abundance of hogs, which run, without restraint, about the houses; and if they eat dogs, which is not improbable, their stock of these seem to be very considerable”. (Cook’s Journal)

Hawaiians lived by a strict set of laws known as kanawai. Certain people, places, and things were kapu (forbidden.) Kapu established rules for behavior. For example, women and men ate separately. Also, women were forbidden from eating certain foods such as pork [they ate dog instead], coconuts, and bananas. (NPS)

Dog teeth were made into hula ankle rattles (kūpe’e niho īlio) that were worn in pairs by male dancers; these produced sharp, rattling sounds. An average pair might contain the canines of up to 500 dogs.

November 27, 2023 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Lei Niho Palaoa

The ornaments of the nobility consisted of head-dresses of feathers, palaoas, or charms of bone suspended from the neck, and necklaces and bracelets of shells. (Kalakaua)

The lei niho palaoa were among the most significant symbols of rank in Hawai‘i. (Bishop Museum)

The koholā or whale was formerly called the palaoa. (Malo) “The whale is the largest ocean creature and a majestic manifestation of Kanaloa.

From the ivory of this creature. The highly prized ‘Palaoa’ or whale-tooth pendant is carved. This palaoa wa only worn by ali‘I of highest rank.” (Kanahele)

The scarcity of the palaoa and its connection to Kanaloa brought mana to the carver, to the pendant itself and eventually to the wearer of the pendant.

The aliʻi who possessed this kinolau or body form of the great God would himself/herself acquire the characteristics, intelligence and knowledge of the God. Therefore, it would be advantageous for any aliʻi to secure the ivory whale-tooth of this Kanaloa body form. (KIRC)

The carved hook pendant is strung on thousands of finely braided strands of human hair. These significant lei were worn by Ali‘i of both genders. These whale teeth were collected from carcass that would wash ashore at specific places in the islands. (Bishop Museum)

The carved form of the lei niho palaoa pendant mimics the shape of a protruding tongue. It alludes to the genealogical right of the chiefs to speak for and rule their people.

The pendant is suspended on coils of finely braided human hair. As hair contains mana, or divine power, a chief wearing a lei niho palaoa carried the mana of his or her ancestors, as well as that of the gods.

The term lei niho palaoa has evolved over time to refer to the symbolic representation of the pendant, and not necessarily the material from which they were made.

Many lei niho palaoa worn by members of high rank in Hawaiian society were crafted from materials such as bone or coral. However, lei niho palaoa made of sperm whale ivory were reserved only for the highest of aliʻi, or chiefs. One such Lei Niho Palaoa was Nalukoki. This was Ke‘eaumoku’s – father of Ka‘ahumanu.

Following Kalaniʻōpuʻu’s death in 1782, the chiefdom was inherited by his son Kīwalaʻō; Kamehameha (Kīwalaʻō’s cousin) was given guardianship of the Hawaiian god of war, Kūkaʻilimoku.)

Dissatisfied with subsequent redistricting of the lands by district chiefs, civil war ensued between Kīwalaʻō’s forces and the various chiefs under the leadership of Kamehameha.

At the first major skirmish, the battle of Mokuʻōhai (a fight between Kamehameha and Kiwalaʻo in July, 1782 at Keʻei, south of Kealakekua Bay on the Island of Hawaiʻi).

During the battle, “When Kīwala‘ō saw this high chief of Hawai‘i being thrust at by the men surrounding him, he called out in a hoarse voice: ‘Ea, be careful in thrusting the spear! Take care lest the niho (lei niho palaoa) be smeared with blood.’”

“When Ke‘eaumoku heard Kīwala‘ō’s first words, he thought he was to be saved, because of the command to be careful in thrusting the spears. When Kīwala‘ō uttered the last words, he realized he was in danger since the niho palaoa he was wearing was the source of Kīwala‘ō’s concern, lest it be soiled with blood.”

“This famous lei niho palaoa was named Nalukoki. Kīwala‘ō greatly prized it for it had been skillfully made of the hair of some famous ali‘i of Hawai‘i Nei, and if it had been soiled with blood its excellence would have been impaired.”

“At this moment, Kamanawa, one of the sacred twins of Kekaulike, saw Ke‘eaumoku’s danger. He quickly moved his men to where Ke‘eaumoku lay, and a heated battle was begun between his men and those of Kīwala‘ō.”

“In the midst of this heated battle a stone flew and struck Kīwala‘ō on the temple so that he fell close to where Ke‘eaumoku lay. When some of Kīwala‘ō’s chiefs saw the harm that had befallen their ali‘i ‘ai moku, they were weakened and began to retreat.”

Kīwala‘ō was not killed when struck by the stone, but had been stunned. “Ke‘eaumoku regained his strength and moved to where Kīwala‘ō lay.”

“He then said these words to the people who were listening: ‘I shall care for the body of the ali‘i.’ At the same time he seized the body of the faint Kīwala‘ō who was lying there, and with the leiomano in his hands, he slashed open Kīwala‘ō’s belly so that his entrails gushed forth and he died instantly.” (Desha)

“When Keōua and his chiefs realized that Kīwala‘ō was dead and they saw the slaughter of their men by Kamehameha’s warriors, they ran and leaped into the sea and swam to the canoes which awaited them.” (Desha)

After a struggle of more than ten years, in 1791, Kamehameha succeeded in securing control over that island of Hawaiʻi (and later, the entire Hawaiian Islands chain.)

November 26, 2023 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Barbara Hall

“Born in Honolulu the son of a whaler, [Alfred Wellington] AW Carter graduated summa cum laude from Yale law school, became a judge, and distinguished himself in various positions in island commerce and government.”

“The ‘big thing’ in his business life – running Parker Ranch – started in 1899 when, at the age of 32, he was named as guardian of young Thelma Kahiluonapuaapiilani Parker. He was to guide Parker Ranch for nearly half a century and do more to advance it than anyone but old Parker himself.” (Paniolo Hall of Fame)

“A man of great humility and spirit, he ever disclaimed that he alone made the Parker Ranch one of the most important meat-producing units of the world, although this was often said of him.”

“Mr. Carter gave the major credit for building this mighty enterprise to the teamwork of the Hawaiian cowboys; to the advice of practical ranchmen who had learned by experience; and to the reasoning of research in the ways of life from germs to genetics.”

“Some thought him a martinet because he demanded that instructions be followed to the letter, but he took the blame himself for errors of judgment, this personally humble and humane servant of the law and leader among his fellows.”

“An unusual man, this Hawaii’s native son, creator of great wealth for others. A somewhat austere man because of his almost puritanical adherence to right and justice, the warmth of his friendships will be a treasured remembrance always.” (Honolulu Advertiser, April 29, 1949)

In 1915, “Barbara Hall is built at a cost of $6,954.02 by Parker Ranch as a place of rest and relaxation for ranch employees and is named in honor of the daughter of then Parker Ranch Manager, AW Carter.” (Parker School) (Barbara Juliette Carter was born June 25, 1901.)

“The courthouse was [used for social activities] … in the meantime we had built this Barbara Hall … That was built for social activities. And then, that [courthouse] building there was used by the police department and for court cases.”

“It was just a big hall and a back room and upstairs for movie projector. We used to have silent pictures those days. Once in a while, we had silent pictures (shown for ranch) families.”

“It was mostly (used) for ranch affairs, ranch functions. When we grew up, we’re not able to throw a party or have a big function like we do now. Everybody just goes out and have a big Iu‘au or for a wedding or baptism. Those days, we didn’t have such a thing. So the hall was strictly used for ranch functions. (It was not opened to the community.)”

“That’s where they had the Christmas-tree program and the big lu’au and silent movies. And meetings would be held, as long it’s ranch-associated, like Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, you know, that are sponsored by the ranch. They would have first use of that facility. Otherwise, there was no other place to hold a meeting, except to go (to) the schools.” (Elizabeth Kimura, Oral History)

“In addition to R&R for Parker Ranch employees, Barbara Hall serves as a community hall for social gatherings, flower shows, community plays, fashion shows, club activities, baby clinics, dance classes, and other community events.”

“Parker Ranch hosts an annual Christmas party and New Year’s Eve luau inviting all residents of Waimea to Barbara Hall.” (Parker School)

“[When] they had a lū‘au there and it took about a week to prepare things for the lū‘au. Because they’d go down to ‘Anaeho‘omalu to get coconuts. They’d go up in the mountain to pick maile and pick fern, to decorate the tables and whatnot.”

“And then cut firewood for the imu, and I guess there probably were twenty-five, thirty people involved in preparing this lū‘au. And every employee on the ranch and a lot of outsiders, non-ranch people, were invited to the lū‘au.”

“The tables were all decorated beautifully with palapalai and ginger and they put the food on the table and they keep the door closed. And when Mr. Carter came up they’d open the door and he would be the first one to go in and sit down, and everybody else would follow in.” (Rally Greenwell, Oral History)

“[D]uring the war … That’s when the marines took over and they added on to the old Barbara Hall and made extensions more for gathering place. The boys would go there and play cards and have bingo games. Recreation …”

In 1943, “Barbara Hall [became] a United Service Organizations (USO) facility for more than 55,000 United States Marines and Navy personnel (two waves of roughly 25,000 soldiers over a two-year period) who train at Camp Tarawa on Parker Ranch during World War II. In two weeks, Waimea’s population explodes from approximately 400 to 25,000 people.” (Parker School)

Barbara Hall at main side Camp Tarawa in Waimea was the busiest and most popular USO on the Island. It was the site of dances with live music played by famous orchestras, entertainment by big-name stars and other recreational activities. (Greguras)

“Our local people used to join in with [the military]. And then they built the (movie) theater right next door to the hall. The military did that. … We used to call it Kahilu Theatre. … Everybody came and watched movies.”

“In fact, the war did a lot of good for Waimea. They brought in the theater, and brought in electricity, that’s a big help. … And after the military left, (the theater was operated by a private individual).”

“It was renamed after Richard’s [Richard Smart’s] mother. Richard’s mother, Kahilu [taken from the first three syllables of her Hawaiian name-Thelma Kahiluonapuaapi’ilani Parker Smart]. It was named Kahilu Hall.” (Elizabeth Kimura, Oral History)

On September 3, 1976, Parker School began; 58 students (grades 9 – 12) were enrolled in the side downstairs portion of Kahilu Hall. Richard Smart loaned the space for the first five classrooms, including a science lab and library-study hall. Parker School continues to use the former Barbara Hall on its campus.

“And then, Richard [Smart] built a new town hall in honor of his mother. Kahilu Town Hall and the Kahilu Theatre.” (Elizabeth Kimura, Oral History)

Alfred Hartwell Carter, commonly known as Hartwell, was the only son of Alfred Wellington Carter and Edith Hartwell Carter. He became Parker Ranch manager in 1937 upon the retirement of his father, AW Carter.

In 1949, Carter Sr. passed away leaving his son with complete responsibility for management of the huge Parker Ranch. Hartwell retired on December 31, 1959, after nearly 23 years of service. (Paniolo Hall of Fame)

November 25, 2023 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Sweet Potato Getting to Hawai‘i

Tracing the history of agricultural products is one way scientists track the migration of people during times when no written records were left behind to offer clues. (Yirda; PHYS)

On his voyages across the Pacific, Captain James Cook encountered geographically disparate Polynesian societies, including those living on Easter Island, Hawai‘i and the north island of New Zealand. These far-flung communities cultivated a common crop, sweet potato. (Denham; NCBI)

Researchers later sampled specimens brought back by early explorers (including Cook.) They found that the DNA evidence indicated that the sweet potato had migrated to Polynesia long before European explorers had made their way to that part of the world. (Yirda; PHYS)

Peruvians first domesticated the sweet potato around 8,000-years ago. And though the crop spread from there, the means by which it traveled have always remained contentious.

One possibility was that Polynesian sailors first brought it home from across the ocean: The oldest carbonized sweet potato evidence in the Pacific hails back to about 1,000 AD – 500-years before Columbus sailed to the Americas.

The Polynesian word for sweet potato resembles the central Andes’ Quechua people’s word for the vegetable. (SmithsonianMag) Polynesian word for sweet potato ‘kuumala’ resembles ‘kumara,’ or ‘cumal,’ the words for the vegetable in Quechua, a language spoken by Andean natives. (NPS)

By analyzing the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and the Americas, researchers have found genetic evidence that proves the root vegetable made it to Polynesia from the Andes.

DNA studies did not just look at potatoes, research suggests Polynesians from Easter Island and natives of South America met and mingled before 1500 AD, 3-centuries after Polynesians settled the island also known as Rapa Nui. In the genomes of 27 living Rapa Nui islanders, the team found dashes of European and Native American genetic patterns.

But did Polynesians land on South American beaches, or did Native Americans sail into the Pacific to reach Rapa Nui? (Lawler; ScienceMag) Or, did its seeds possibly hitch a ride on seaweed or natural raft, or gotten lodged in the wing of a bird? (NPR)

“Our studies strongly suggest that Native Americans most probably arrived (on Rapa Nui) shortly after the Polynesians (got there.)” (Erik Thorsby; ScienceMag)

But many scientists say that Pacific currents and Polynesian mastery of the waves make it more likely that the Polynesians were the voyagers. They may have sailed to South America, swapped goods for sweet potatoes and other novelties—and returned to their island with South American women. (Lawler; ScienceMag)

“There’s a lot of evidence accumulating … that the Polynesians made landfall in South America. We think they had sophisticated, double-hulled canoes – like very large catamarans – which could carry 80 or more people and be out to sea for months.” (Kirch; NPR)

But Polynesians didn’t just grab the potatoes and head home. There are clues that they may have introduced chickens to the continent while they were at it.

“(T)here is this baffling evidence that there were chickens in western Peru before Columbus.” (Mann; NPR) Chicken bones – unknown in the Americas before 1500 AD have been excavated on a Chilean beach, which some believe predate Columbus. (NPR)

The researchers found strong evidence that “supports the so-called tripartite hypothesis, which argues that the sweet potato was introduced to Polynesia three times: first through premodern contact between Polynesia and South America, then by Spanish traders sailing west from Mexico, and Portuguese traders coming east from the Caribbean.”

“The Spanish and Portuguese varieties ended up in the western Pacific, while the older South American variety dominated in the east”. (SmithsonianMag)

It is believed the sweet potato then made three independent trips to Southeast Asia. The Polynesians probably introduced it in 1100 AD. While the Spanish and Portuguese brought other varieties from the Americas around 1500. (NPR)

“I’m delighted to see the (tripartite) hypothesis now further confirmed by these recent results.” (Kirch; Nature) Such studies of how humans moved plants and animals, Kirch says, show what the late pioneering ethnobotanist Edgar Anderson called “man’s transported landscapes.”

Historical specimens will be crucial to explaining these patterns. The sweet potatoes collected by Captain Cook’s voyage, for example, “provided time-controlled data” that show “the importance of continuing to curate such specimens in the world’s museums”. (Nature)

As widely used as it is now, the sweet potato could play an even bigger role in feeding people across the world: climate change may help the roots grow even bigger. (SmithsonianMag)

He ʻuala ka ʻai hoʻola koke i ka wi.
The sweet potato is the food that ends famine quickly. (ʻŌlelo Noʻeau from Pukui)

3 Independent introductions of sweet potato-NPS