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About 250 Years Ago … The Federalist

The Federalist (they did not become known as ‘The Federalist Papers’ until the 20th century) is a series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay between October 1787 and May 1788.

The essays were published anonymously, under the pen name “Publius,” in various New York state newspapers of the time.

The Federalist Papers were written and published to urge New Yorkers to ratify the proposed United States Constitution, which was drafted in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787.

In lobbying for adoption of the Constitution over the existing Articles of Confederation, the essays explain particular provisions of the Constitution in detail.

For this reason, and because Hamilton and Madison were each members of the Constitutional Convention, the Federalist Papers are often used today to help interpret the intentions of those drafting the Constitution.

The Federalist Papers were published primarily in two New York state newspapers: The New York Packet and The Independent Journal. They were reprinted in other newspapers in New York state and in several cities in other states.

Beginning on October 27, 1787, these papers are generally considered to be one of the most important contributions to political thought made in America.

The essays appeared in book form in 1788, with an introduction by Hamilton. Subsequently they were printed in many editions and translated to several languages.

The authors of the Federalist papers argued against the decentralization of political authority under the Articles of Confederation.

They worried, for example, that national commercial interests suffered from intransigent economic conflicts between states and that federal weakness undermined American diplomatic efforts abroad. Broadly, they argued that the government’s impotence under the Articles of Confederation obstructed America’s emergence as a powerful commercial empire.

The authors were also critical of the power assumed by state legislatures under the Articles of Confederation – and of the characters of the people serving in those assemblies. In the authors’ view, the farmers and artisans who rose to power in postrevolutionary America were too beholden to narrow economic and regional interests to serve the broader public good.

Of particular concern to the authors was the passage by state legislatures of pro-debtor legislation and paper money laws that threatened creditors’ property rights.

Unlike most Americans of the period, who typically worried about the conspiracies of the elite few against the liberties of the people, the authors were concerned about tyrannical legislative majorities threatening the rights of propertied minorities.

The Articles of Confederation, in their view, had provided no safeguards against the vices of the people themselves, and the American Revolution’s enthusiasm for liberty had diminished popular appreciation of the need for good governance. The Federalist papers presented the 1786–87 insurrection of debtor farmers in western Massachusetts – Shays’s Rebellion – as a symptom of this broader crisis.

The authors of the Federalist papers argued for an increase in the ‘energy’ of the federal government to respond to this crisis.

However, the national government’s increased power would have to be based in republican principles and retain a federal distribution of power; there would be no return to monarchical rule or consolidation of central authority.

In one of the most notable essays, “Federalist 10,” Madison rejected the then common belief that republican government was possible only for small states.

He argued that stability, liberty, and justice were more likely to be achieved in a large area with a numerous and heterogeneous population.

Although frequently interpreted as an attack on majority rule, the essay is in reality a defense of both social, economic, and cultural pluralism and of a composite majority formed by compromise and conciliation.

Decision by such a majority, rather than by a monistic one, would be more likely to accord with the proper ends of government. This distinction between a proper and an improper majority typifies the fundamental philosophy of the Federalist papers; republican institutions, including the principle of majority rule, were not considered good in themselves but were good because they constituted the best means for the pursuit of justice and the preservation of liberty.

 On September 17, 1787, the Constitution of the United States was accepted by the delegates.  Nine states needed to vote for the Constitution for it to be accepted.

On July 26, 1788 New York, by a vote of 30-27, became the 11th state to ratify the Constitution. The New York Ratifying Convention, having approved the Constitution, also voted unanimously to prepare a circular letter to the other states, asking them to support a second general convention to consider amendments to the Constitution.

Largely through the efforts of James Madison, the first Congress in September 1789 proposed a Bill of Rights, which was adopted with little public debate in December 1791.

Click the following link to a general summary about The Federalist:

Click to access The-Federalist.pdf

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About 250 Years Ago … Yorktown – Articles of Capitulation

After a series of reverses and the depletion of his forces’ strength, the British commander in the southern colonies, General Lord Cornwallis, moved his army from Wilmington, North Carolina, eastward to Petersburg, Virginia, on the Atlantic coast, in May 1781.

Cornwallis had about 7,500 men and was confronted in the region by only about 4,500 American troops under the marquis de Lafayette, General Anthony Wayne, and Frederick William, Freiherr (baron) von Steuben.

In order to maintain his seaborne lines of communication with the main British army of General Henry Clinton in New York City, Cornwallis then retreated through Virginia, first to Richmond, next to Williamsburg, and finally, near the end of July, to Yorktown and the adjacent promontory of Gloucester, both of which he proceeded to fortify.

The American commander in chief, General George Washington, ordered Lafayette to block Cornwallis’s possible escape from Yorktown by land.

In the meantime Washington’s 2,500 Continental troops in New York were joined by 4,000 French troops under the comte de Rochambeau.

This combined allied force left a screen of troops facing Clinton’s forces in New York while the main Franco-American force, beginning on August 21, undertook a rapid march southward to the head of Chesapeake Bay, where it linked up with a French fleet of 24 ships under the comte de Grasse.  This fleet had arrived from the West Indies and was maintaining a sea blockade of Cornwallis’s army.

Cornwallis’s army waited in vain for rescue or reinforcements from the British navy while de Grasse’s fleet transported Washington’s troops southward to Williamsburg, Virginia, whence they joined Lafayette’s forces in the siege of Yorktown. Washington was thus vindicated in his hopes of entrapping Cornwallis on the Yorktown Peninsula.

Meanwhile, a smaller British fleet under Admiral Thomas Graves was unable to counter French naval superiority at the Battle of Virginia Capes and felt forced to return to New York.  A British rescue fleet, two-thirds the size of the French, set out for Virginia on October 17 with some 7,000 British troops, but it was too late.

Throughout early October Washington’s 14,000 Franco-American troops steadily overcame the British army’s fortified positions at Yorktown. Surrounded, outgunned, and running low on food, Cornwallis surrendered his entire army on October 19 (though, either ill – as he claimed – or simply humiliated, Cornwallis did not participate in the actual surrender, having delegated that task to Brig. Gen. Charles O’Hara).

The total number of British prisoners taken was about 8,000, along with about 240 guns. Casualties on both sides were relatively light. The victory at Yorktown ended fighting in the Revolution and virtually assured success to the American cause.  (Britannica)

On October 19, 1781, the British and Hessian forces under the command of Lord Charles Cornwallis surrendered to the French and American forces at Yorktown, Virginia.

The parties then entered into an agreement – Articles of Capitulation – that were the surrender of Cornwallis’s British army. The 14 articles directed the surrender from the disposition of the troops, artillery, and arms, to even the surrender ceremony itself.

The articles directed where the troops, now prisoners of war, were to be sent. The soldiers were marched off to camps in Frederick, Maryland, and Winchester, Virginia. One field officer for every 50 men was allowed to reside near their respective regiments to witness their treatment and deliver clothing and other necessaries to the soldiers at the camps.

All other officers were paroled and allowed to go to Europe, New York, or any other American post then in possession of the British forces, on the condition they would no longer fight until properly exchanged.

Another article provided for the care of the sick and wounded prisoners. Proper hospitals would be furnished, with patients attended by their surgeons on parole. Medicine and supplies were to be provided by the American hospitals, the British stores in both York and Gloucester, and passports would be issued to procure further supplies from New York if necessary.

The third article referred to the surrender ceremony and contained the provision that deprived the British of the honors war. Customary honors allowed the surrendering troops to march out of their works with their regimental flags flying and playing an enemy’s tune in honor of the victor.

George Washington was not going to allow these honors, instead he stated, “The same honors will be granted to the surrendering army as granted to the garrison of Charlestown”.

In May, 1780, an American army was captured at Charleston, South Carolina and not given the honors of war, therefore, in retaliation, the British would not be granted them at Yorktown.

The troops, the article read, were to “…march out…with shouldered arms, colors cased, and drums beating a British or German march. They are then to ground their arms and return to their encampment, where they will remain until they are dispatched to the places of their destination…”

By the afternoon of October 19th, 1781, both commanders had signed the Articles of Capitulation, and the defeated British army was marching out from Yorktown to lay down their arms, ending the last major battle of the American Revolution. (NPS)

Click the following link to a general summary about Yorktown – Articles of Capitulation:

Click to access Yorktown-Articles-of-Capitulation.pdf

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About 250 Years Ago … Siege of Yorktown

The final battle of the Revolutionary War–the surrender at Yorktown, Virginia–marked the end of the lengthy war between the British and the new United States.

A peninsula near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, Yorktown was the final fortification for Charles Cornwallis’s band of British troops and Hessian mercenaries.

The American victory at Saratoga achieved by General Horatio Gates in October 1777 was a pivotal moment in the American Revolution because it further convinced the French to formally ally with the American colonists, providing critical military and financial support.

The aid provided by the Marquis de Lafayette and the troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau proved necessary for the victory won by Washington’s Continental Army.

The French Navy, led by the Comte de Grasse, overcame the British at the Battle of the Chesapeake mere weeks before the final siege was waged, allowing the French to control the bay, and preventing Cornwallis’s men from escaping by sea.

Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781, at 10:30 a.m. The Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, after months of negotiations between the American and British delegates following the American victory at the Battle of Yorktown.

According to the Treaty, “His Britannic Majesty acknowledge[d] the said United States…to be free sovereign and Independent States.”

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About 250 Years Ago … Continental Navy

At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, the British navy was the largest and most experienced navy in the world, and it was essential to the survival of the British empire.

The Royal Navy numbered over 250 vessels of all sizes. These ranged from massive ships-of-the-line to tiny sloops and coastal vessels. By the end of the war that number would nearly double as the navy expanded to meet the threat posed by other European powers fighting alongside the Americans.

By the eve of the American Revolution, maritime commerce had become a major factor in the economic, social, political, and cultural development of the American colonies.

During the American Revolution, the British Navy played a critical role in supporting its Army’s attempts to crush the American rebellion, allowing the army to strike anywhere along the coast.

Formation of Continental Navy

In an October 5, 1775 letter, read to Congress on October 13, 1775, General Washington stated, in part, “I shall now beg leave to request the determination of Congress as to the property and disposal of such vessels and cargoes as are designed for the supply of the enemy, and may fall into our hands. …”

“As there are many unfortunate individuals whose property has been confiscated by the enemy, I would humbly suggest to the consideration of Congress the humanity of applying, in part or in the whole, such captures to the relief of those sufferers, after compensating any expense of the captors, and for their activity and spirit.”

“I am the more induced to request this determination may be speedy, as I have directed three vessels to be equipped, in order to cut off the supplies; and, from the number of vessels hourly arriving, it may become an object of some importance.”

“In the disposal of these captures, for the encouragement of the officers and men, I have allowed them one-third of the cargoes, except military stores, which, with the vessels, are to be reserved for the publick use. I hope my plan, as well as the execution, will be favoured with the approbation of Congress.”

Within a few days of Washington’s letter, the first legislation of the Continental Congress in regard to an American Navy directed the equipment of one vessel of 10 guns and another of 14 guns as national cruisers.

At the same time, an act was passed establishing a ‘Marine Committee,’ consisting of John Adams, John Langdon and Silas Deane, which was chosen by Congress from among its own members, and was to be in complete control of naval affairs.

Washington chartered the fishing schooner Hannah to raid British shipping of valuable military supplies. Though Washington had no intention of establishing an American navy, the Hannah became the first of eleven vessels chartered to aid the revolutionary cause.

 The initial fleet included the brigantine Washington and seven schooners, the Hannah, Lynch, Franklin, Lee, Warren, Harrison and the Hancock. But these were army vessels under the command of General Washington.

On November 25, 1775, Congress authorized the capture and confiscation of all British armed vessels, transports and supply ships, and directed the issuing of commissions to captains of cruisers and privateers.

The Marine Committee was given full powers in the direction of the fleet under Commodore Esek Hopkins, on January 25, 1776.

The committee also drafted subsequent naval legislation and prepared rules and regulations to govern the organization. The first American squadron was launched on February 18, 1776. The size of the Continental navy peaked in 1777 with a total of 31 ships.

American naval forces in the War for Independence took many forms, most of them designed to meet a specific need at a particular moment.  The early Continental Navy was designed to work with privateers to wage tactical raids against the transports that supplied British forces in North America.

The Continental Congress purchased, converted and constructed a fleet of small ships to accomplish this mission. These navy ships sailed independently or in pairs, hunting British commerce ships and transports.

Over the six months of the American siege of Boston, “Washington’s Navy” captured some fifty-five prizes, provided much-needed supplies to the troops, and boosted the efforts of naval-minded members of Congress who sought to create a national naval force.

Over the course of the War of Independence, the Continental Navy sent to sea more than fifty armed vessels of various types. The navy’s squadrons and cruisers seized enemy supplies and carried correspondence and diplomats to Europe, returning with needed munitions.

They took nearly 200 British vessels as prizes, some off the British Isles themselves, contributing to the demoralization of the enemy and forcing the British to divert warships to protect convoys and trade routes. In addition, the navy provoked diplomatic crises that helped bring France into the war against Great Britain.

The French and Spanish Navies Support the American Effort

The naval war changed drastically in 1778 when the French joined the war on the side of the Americans.  Faced with a foe with a comparably large navy, the British now had to prepare for large-scale fleet actions.

Even worse was the threat of invasion and the loss of colonies in the West Indies and Asia, which were far more profitable to Britain than the 13 colonies in North America. British fears increased in 1779, when the Spanish joined the war, and the threat of a combined Franco-Spanish invasion of Britain became a very real possibility.

The commitment to supporting the army, protecting trade, and defending the home islands and colonies spread the Royal Navy thin by 1780, allowing the French to send increasing numbers of arms and men to America.

The Future United States Navy

In 1785, two years after the end of the war, the money-poor Congress sold off the last ship of the Continental Navy.  But with the expansion of trade and shipping in the 1790s, the possibility of attacks by European powers and pirates increased

In early March 1794, news arrived that attacks on American ships were increasing. In addition to the merchant ships Thomas, Hope, Dispatch, George, Olive Branch, Jane, President, Polly, and Minerva having been taken by Barbary pirates in late 1793, still more American vessels were now falling victim to privateers and ships of war ─ both British and French ─ much closer to home.

On March 27, 1794, President Washington signed the “Act to provide a Naval Armament.” It authorized the President to acquire six frigates, four of 44 guns each and two of 36 guns each, by purchase or otherwise. In addition, it specified how many crew members would be necessary and what their pay and daily rations would be. It launched the new US Navy.

Click the following link to a general summary about the Continental Navy:

Click to access Continental-Navy-SAR-RT.pdf

Click to access Continental-Navy.pdf

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About 250 Years Ago … Battle of Kings Mountain

The Battle of Kings Mountain took place on October 7, 1780. The “mountain” is a sixteen-mile ridge that crosses the border of North and South Carolina.

About five miles from the battle is the town of Kings Mountain, in North Carolina. The town was named in honor of the revolutionary battle, which was a Patriot victory.

It was not only a Patriot victory, but an important turning point in the American Revolution.

However, this battle (like Moore’s Creek Bridge early in the war) was a fight between Patriots and Loyalists—a civil war, if you will. The only British soldier was Major Patrick Ferguson, the commander, who died in the conflict.

Major Patrick Ferguson, a respected and twice-wounded commander, had been tapped to go into the Carolinas, guarding the left flank of General Cornwallis’s army as it moved northwest.

The “Overmountain” militias (men from the west side of the Appalachians, located in what is now Tennessee and Kentucky as well as the Carolinas) were led by capable commanders such as Isaac Shelby and John Sevier. They decided to take on Ferguson’s troops.

Some of their soldiers were 100 miles away when the army was being gathered, but they rode overnight to reach the other Patriots.

They were farmers and hunters who used rifles rather than the muskets typically used by the British army.

Joined by Virginians as they responded to the call for Patriot soldiers, the militias added more soldiers as they crossed the mountains.

William S. Powell writes that when he heard about the Overmountain men, “Ferguson laughed at this ragtag band, which he pretended to despise—he called it ‘a set of mongrels.’”

The Battle of Kings Mountain ended a string of British wins as the British moved through the Carolinas. Making the battle a success for the Patriots. (Information here is from North Carolina History, the video is Kings Mountain: The Revolutionary War in Four Minutes posted on YouTube by American Battlefield Trust.)