Images of Old Hawaiʻi

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Nā Wai ʻEhā

Maui is the second largest of the Hawaiian Islands, and covers about 730 square miles.  Maui consists of two separate volcanoes with a combining isthmus between the two.

The Mauna Kahālāwai (West Maui Mountain) is probably the older of the two; Haleakala (East Maui) was last active about 1790, whereas activity on West Maui is wholly pre-historic.

Nā Wai ʻEhā (“The Four Great Waters”) – Waiheʻe River, Waiehu Stream, Wailuku (ʻĪao) Stream and Waikapū Stream are in central Maui.

The headwaters of Waine’e and ‘Īao extend to or near the summit of the Mauna Kahālāwai at Pu‘u Kukui and are among the largest streams, in terms of stream flow, on Maui.

The headwaters of N & S Waiehu Streams are cut off from the summit area by the valleys of Waine’e River to the north and ‘Īao Stream to the south, they later merge to form Waiehu Stream.  Waikapū Stream is the only Nā Wai ‘Ehā stream that drains to the southern coast of Maui.

The abundance of water in Nā Wai ʻEhā enabled extensive loʻi kalo (wetland kalo) complexes, including varieties favored for poi-making such as “throat-moistening lehua poi.” (CWRM)

Nā Wai ʻEhā once “comprised the largest continuous area of wetland taro cultivation in the islands.” Its “complex agricultural system of wetland kalo cultivation,” together with the abundant protein sources in the streams and nearshore waters, supported one of the largest populations on Maui.

The fertile kalo lands, complex system of irrigation ʻauwai (ditches) and abundant fresh water from Nā Wai ʻEhā sustained Hawaiian culture for 1,000-years.

In addition to extensive agricultural production, other practices thrived in Nā Wai ʻEhā, including the gathering of upland resources, such as thatch and ti, and protein sources from the streams, including ʻoʻopu (goby fish,) ʻōpae (shrimp) and hihiwai (snail.)

The waters of Nā Wai ʻEhā were renowned for the practice of hiding the piko, or the umbilical cord of newborn babies. “(T)he spring ʻEleile contained an underwater cave where the people of the area would hide the piko of their babies after birth.”  This practice affirms the individual’s connection to the land.

The practice of hiʻuwai, also known as kapu kai, often occurred here around the time of makahiki, when individuals “would go into the rivers or into the ocean in order to do a cleansing for the new year”.

This type of cleansing, which required immersion in the water, was also conducted “before you start or end certain ceremonies”.  For ceremonies dedicated to Kāne, “having a hiʻuwai in a stream magnifies the mana”.

Given the makeup of the Nā Wai ʻEhā, Waiheʻe River and ‘Īao historically would have flowed continuously to the coast; Waiehu Stream would have flowed continuously to the coast at least 95 percent of the time; and Waikapū Stream would have flowed continuously to the coast less than half of the time.  (USGS)

But the streams were diverted, to quench the thirst of the thirsty sugar plantations.

By 1866, a letter published in the Hawaiian language newspaper Nūpepa Kūʻokoʻa lamented “the current condition of once cultivated taro patches being dried up by the foreigners, where they are now planting sugar cane”.

These diversions and ditch systems historically supplied two sugar plantations: Wailuku Sugar and Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company (HC&S,) which belonged to the plantation-era “Big Five” companies C. Brewer and Alexander & Baldwin, respectively.

Wailuku Sugar was organized in 1862 by James Robinson, Thomas Cummins, J Fuller and agent C Brewer.  In 1878, through his friendship with King Kalākaua, Claus Spreckels secured a lease of 40,000-acres of land on Maui and by 1882 he founded the Hawaiian Commercial Company (later known as Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company – HC&S.)

This quickly became the largest and best-equipped sugar plantation in the islands (in 1898, Spreckels lost control of HC&S and Alexander & Baldwin took over as agents at that time.)

Water wars have been waged way back.

Back in 1882, Wailuku Sugar and Spreckels fought over portions of the ditch system and purported rights to the water in the streams.

Lately, complaints were filed by downstream users arguing public trust, traditional and cultural practices (including kalo farming.)  In part, the diversions and ditches are capable of diverting all of the dry-weather flow available at the intakes – and often times, downstream conditions resulted in dry streambeds.

The State Commission on Water Resource Management designated Nā Wai ʻEhā a surface water management area. Of concern is the instream flow standards.

Instream Flow Standard is “a quantity or flow of water or depth of water which is required to be present at a specific location in a stream system at certain specified times of the year to protect fishery, wildlife, recreational, aesthetic, scenic, and other beneficial instream uses.”

The technical language of the law is complicated; I simplify this to say that the instream flow standard allows a stream to be a stream.  (Lots of information here is from associated court papers and descriptions.)

The image shows a map of Nā Wai ʻEhā (CWRM.)

© 2026 Hoʻokuleana LLC

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Kāʻanapali Historical Trail & History and Legends Tour

A 10-stop walking trail, sponsored by the Kāʻanapali Beach Resort Association, gives residents and visitors a little look into the past of this resort destination.  Following is a summary of the 10 points of interest and a little bit about each stop (all of the content here comes from their on-line information on the trail:)

1. Kāʻanapali Airstrip and Windsock Lounge

From 1962 until 1987, the Kāʻanapali Airstrip and Terminal occupied this area adjacent to the beach, which was surrounded by cane fields. In fact, the north side of Kāʻanapali Beach became known as “Airport Beach.” In the early years, prop jet air taxis from Honolulu would land at the strip and were able to pull up to the Royal Lāhainā Beach Hotel.

During its last ten years, the airstrip was closed to general aviation and operated by Royal Hawaiian Air Service whose fleet of Cessna airplanes averaged 60 flights a day in and out of Kāʻanapali.  The Windsock Lounge, as the name indicates, was located at the top of the terminal (whose interior walls and ceiling were covered with business cards from all over the world.)

2. Plantation Farm and Ancient Village of Kekaʻa

During the first half of the 20th century, this site flourished with mango trees and grasses. It is most remembered by local families for its pig farm, in which hogs were raised to feed the many sugar plantation workers. There were several plantation houses near the beach, where families of Japanese sugar plantation workers lived and maintained the farm.

In ancient times, the area around Royal Lāhainā Resort held the royal gardens of old Hawai‘i. A kalo (taro) patch and other food crops were cultivated here, aided by a freshwater spring.  Kekaʻa was a fishing village nestled against the beach, where fishermen and farmers would gather bounty from the sea and cultivate lowland crops.

3. The Stones of Moemoe and Wahine O Manua/Wahine Peʻe

At the south end of Maui Eldorado Resort behind the tall hedge, lie two large brown pōhaku, or stones, which are steeped in legend. Over six feet long, the larger of these is called Moemoe and resembles a reclining or sleeping person. Moemoe preferred to lie down at Kekaʻa and sleep for his own contentment.

The smaller stone has been the subject of several legends and two different names. The popular name is the Hiding Woman Stone (Pōhaku o Wahine Peʻe) which relates to a love story between her and Moemoe, but there’s also legend of the abused, or fighting, woman (Wahine o Manua) who was hidden by the stone.

4. Kekaʻa Landing Pier

The Kekaʻa landing pier, that once stretched quite a distance into the ocean, operated for many years as the primary loading spot for shipping processed sugar from the island and bringing in supplies for the plantation camps.  Railroad tracks led from the sugar cane fields to the beach, and warehouses for storage were erected near the pier.

Logs used for lumber were also transported to the pier, but would often be loaded into the water first. Submerged in the salt water, logs were left there to cure for a few months. Many plantation era homes were reportedly termite-free due to this method of wood preservation.

5. Pu‘u Kekaʻa and Chief Kahekili

This famous dark lava rock promontory is named Pu‘u Kekaʻa in Hawaiian (which translates as “the rolling hill.” It is revered as a sacred spot known as “ka leina a ka ʻuhane” – the place where a soul leaps into eternity. Each island has these significant places (usually at its western-most point.)  This

It was also a point for lele kawa,” or cliff jumping.  Chief Kahekili (ruled circa 1766-1793) was known to have jumped into the sea from heights of 300 to 400 feet. Here, he gained respect from many warriors, as most were frightened of the spirits who lived in the area. These days, every evening at sunset, a Sheraton Maui Resort diver gracefully leaps from the top of the rock into the ocean, symbolizing the great chief’s dives, as torches are lit for the coming night to honor the souls of the departed.

6. Chief Kākaʻalaneo and Legend of Kaululā‘au

Kākaʻalaneo was a high chief of the land at Kekaʻa (Maui’s capital circa 15th century). The chief reigned over a thriving community of many people, as his land was fertile and rich with groves of breadfruit, bananas, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, and taro. He and his wife had two children who were born here, their son Kaululā’au and daughter Wao.

The family kahuna (priest) predicted that Kaululā’au would be destructive, but that the lands would eventually be blessed by his strength and deeds. Kaululā’au would uproot young taro and sweet potato plants for fun. His father finally banished Kaululā’au to the island of Lānaʻi to live among the spirits there.  Kaululā’au eventually rid the island of all the ghosts and later became the ruling chief of the island.

7. Koko O Nā Moku Race Track

This is named after the famous battle between two royal brothers who fought in the area; a race track stood right on Kāʻanapali’s sandy beach. The track stretched from Kāʻanapali Beach Hotel, past The Whaler and Whalers Village to The Westin Maui Resort.

It was built for horse racing, which was a favorite sport of many members of Hawaiian royalty during the Gay 90s era, as well as plantation owners and laborers.  The race track thrived through the World War I era, until the last official race was held on America’s Independence Day, July 4, 1918.

8. Battle of Koko O Nā Moku

Upon great chief Kekaulike’s death, younger son Kamehamehanui was named heir to rule Maui. In 1738, his older brother Kauhiʻaimokuakama (Kauhi) began to wage war to win the title of ruling chief. Kamehamehanui engaged the forces of his uncle from Hawai‘i to fight with him, whose troops numbered over 8,000, and Kauhi brought troops of warriors from O‘ahu.

Battles were fought across West Maui, from Ukumehame to Honokōwai. The war ended with the most famous battle, Koko O Nā Moku, which translates to “Bloodshed of the Islands.” Over several days, the blood of fallen warriors from both sides flowed from the mouth of the stream into the shorebreak and caused the ocean to turn red.  Kamehamehanui triumphed and ruled Maui in peace for many years.

9. Lo‘i Kalo (Taro Patch)

Across from the south end of Marriott’s Maui Ocean Club, at the 17th green of the South Course, the ground dips slightly lower. This area was used to cultivate taro (kalo) in abundant terraced patches (lo‘i) in old Hawai‘i.  The Hahakea Stream flowed from the mountain to the sea; earthen berms were built up to channel the water between rows of this staple food.

Kalo is believed to have the greatest life force of all foods. According to the ancient creation chant, the Kumulipo, kalo grew from the first-born son of Wākea (father sky) and Papa (mother earth). He was stillborn and buried in fertile soil. Out of his body grew the kalo plant, also called Hāloa, which means “everlasting breath.”

10. The Owl Cave Legends

At the Lāhainā end of Hyatt Regency Maui Resort & Spa is the mouth of the Hahakea Stream that originates way up the mountain.  On Kāʻanapali’s South Course, near the Hahakea, streambed is the site of what once was known as the cave of Pueo, or the “Owl Cave,” the actual location of which is a guarded secret.

According to one legend, it was where Hina hid her son Maui so he would not be sacrificed; in another legend, it is referred to as the home of the guardian spirit owl who protected the villagers of Kekaʻa. The Pueo protected children from warriors by leading them to another cave located in Pu‘u Kekaʻa. They hid there, until the warriors became frustrated and ended their search.

The image shows the Kāʻanapali Historical Trail points of interest over a Google Earth image.

© 2026 Hoʻokuleana LLC

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Protecting a Forest, Preserving a Culture

Envision a child helping to plant a seedling; then, while standing before a 100-year old tree, asking him about what he thought life was like in the islands when that tree was once a seedling.

More importantly, imagine him wonder what life will be like in the islands when his planted seedling turned 100-years old.

This was part of the vision for a forest management plan; let’s look back …

Native koa ecosystems serve as watershed recharge areas while providing recreational opportunities and important wildlife habitat. Koa is considered a vital species for healthy populations of endemic birds and insects. The tree itself has myriad uses in Hawaiian culture and traditions.

In making Hokuleʻa, the Polynesian Voyaging Society (PVS) wanted to use traditional materials (koa wood hulls, lauhala sails, sennit lashing) and traditional tools (adzes, bone gouges, coral files and sharkskin for sanding) in building the canoe.

Instead, the hulls were constructed out of plywood, fiberglass, and resin, and the sails were made from canvas; the lashings were done with synthetic cordage. (PVS)

It takes 125 years or more to grow a koa log large enough for a canoe, which generally needs to be 35 to 45 feet long with a diameter of 48 inches or more (voyaging canoes require larger logs.)

That period may be shortened if specific koa logs are identified for canoes now, and forestry prescriptions (e.g. thinning, pruning) are applied to favor the growth of those trees for canoe logs. (DLNR)

Unless committed efforts were made to grow koa for canoe logs on a sustainable basis now, no Hawaiian voyaging canoes would be built in the future using traditional methods (i.e. from a single large log.)

Likewise, racing and smaller style canoes will need to be fabricated from smaller koa logs joined or spliced together.

While I was Chair at DLNR, I remembered how folks could not find appropriately sized/shaped native trees in Hawai‘i to build the Hokule‘a and subsequent voyaging canoes.

Likewise, I knew of the interest canoe clubs and others had for koa racing canoes. Without protection of our koa forests, we may never have the trees for future canoes.

In 2004, we then initiated the formal designation of the Kapapala Koa Canoe Forest Management Area on land set-aside in 1989, near the Volcano National Park, in Kaʻu, on the Big Island. The designated area consists of approximately 1,200-acres of mature koa-ʻohiʻa forest.

The 1,257-acre property extends from the 3,640-foot elevation of Mauna Loa to 5,100 feet. It is next to the state-managed Kapapala and Ka’u Forest Reserves, and is covered with young and old koa trees, although the trees aren’t yet suitable for canoe building.

Here, koa trees grow tall and straight – necessary traits for core material in canoe shaping. It was the first Forest Management Area specifically designated for nurturing and harvesting koa canoe logs.

A broad, multi-faceted focus was envisioned, dealing with cultural & historical, technical forestry (planning, measurements, theory,) applied forestry (plant, weed, thin, prune, harvest) and wood working (canoe building, as well as crafting of excess/scrap material.)

Seven major goals of the project included:

  1. Preserve Hawaiʻi’s unique natural and cultural inheritance for future generations, by fostering knowledge and respect for Hawaii’s native forests, in a way that inspires better care of its natural environment.
  2. Protect threatened tropical forest habitat and promote environmental policies and practices, that address biological sustainability and human well-being, by identifying and integrating relevant traditional Hawaiian natural resource stewardship models with current Western management strategies.
  3. Develop natural resource stewardship models that involve a wide range of constituent groups.
  4. Involve youth through cooperative programs with the Department of Education, University of Hawaiʻi, and other school and education institutions.
  5. Provide wood workers with portions of harvested trees that are not processed as canoe logs.
  6. Involve other constituency groups (i.e. canoe clubs, forest management entities and cultural organizations).
  7. Provide compatible opportunities for public uses such as hunting and recreation.

Protecting trees for canoes is great; but, for me, the plan was not just about trees – we envisioned greater benefit by getting school children into the forests to help with the management and monitoring of its progress – and help them wonder.

At the outset, we envisioned that trees in the forest would be ‘designated’ to schools and canoe clubs across the state, with students and paddlers from each school/club periodically visiting and nurturing their respective tree. Ultimately, the school/club would get a log for a school/club koa canoe.

Likewise, the intent was to make the excess wood available to wood workers, so nothing would be wasted and crafters would have material to work with.

As part of the project implementation, Hawaiʻi Forest Institute worked with the Hawai‘i Forest Industry Association (HFIA,) DLNR’s Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW,) Imi Pono and the Three Mountain Alliance to develop a plan for bringing youth to the Kapapala Canoe Forest for cultural and environmental education.

What is most gratifying about this story is that starting on March 1, 2026, DLNR initiated a Koa Log Application for those who wish to acquire a koa log to build canoes to be used for racing, voyaging, fishing, education, or other traditional and customary practices.

The dream of assuring future koa logs for canoes is becoming reality through partnerships with DLNR and others. The needs for future koa canoe logs are being filled, DOE and children across the state can also participate in these activities, and a healthy forest will be protected.

It worked! Yay!

© 2026 Hoʻokuleana LLC

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Cats and Dogs

“I saw cats – Tom cats, Mary Ann cats, long-tailed cats, bobtail cats, blind cats, one-eyed cats, walleyed cats, cross-eyed cats, gray cats, black cats, white cats, yellow cats, striped cats, spotted cats, tame cats, wild cats, singed cats …”

“… individual cats, groups of cats, platoons of cats, companies of cats, regiments of cats, armies of cats, multitudes of cats, millions of cats, and all of them sleek, fat, lazy, and sound asleep”. (Twain, April 19, 1866)

They had taxed the cats, but dropped that in 1851. Let’s look back …

“The history of taxation in Hawaii is very brief. … Taxes were summarily levied on what was nearest and most convenient. … In 1850 all taxes, except labor, were made payable in money.”

“A chattel tax, which was really a tax on personal property, as well as a specific tax on cattle, horses, mules, asses, cats and dogs was, by said act, also provided.”

“Cats and dogs not useful in guarding flocks, herds or households were taxed $1 each. All other chattels, etc., were taxed 2 per cent ad valorem.” (Castle)

“All dogs and cats shall be subject to an annual tax of one rial per head, payable to the tax-gatherer previously to the first of January of each year; otherwise they must be killed.” (Laws Passed by the Annual Council of the Hawaiian Nobles and Representatives, Lahaina, 1843)

“It shall in like manner be incumbent upon all owners of cattle, horses, mules, asses, cats and dogs on or before the first day of December, to file with the governor of the island in which they happen to be, a true statement of the number owned by them respectively attested as aforesaid.” (Chattel Tax in Statute Laws, 1846)

“(T)hinking the horse and dog tax to which we are subject in these Islands not only heavy but unusual, I have to my surprise found out they paid in England the following taxes for 1850, and I presume for every year. Dog Tax – For every greyhound, $5.00, For every other dog, where two or more are kept, $3.50.” (Polynesian, January 10, 1852)

However, in 1851 the cat tax was dropped, “That all laws of this kingdom imposing any tax on cats be and the same are hereby repealed. … The tax of one dollar on dogs shall remain”. (Approved by the King, July 11, 1851)

When William Root Bliss visited Honolulu in 1873, he discovered that what should have been a quiet port city had been transformed into a noisy, yowling place by the pets of its residents. “Every family keeps at least one dog; every native family a brace of cats.”

The dogs would then begin to howl, joined by the cats who protest with “every vowel sound in the Hawaiian language.” It was impossible, he wrote, for him to sleep. (Bliss; Amanda)

Mormon missionary Joseph Fielding Smith (later LDS Church President,) in particular, noted their presence in his diaries. With few exceptions, he wrote in his July 4th, 1856 journal entry, “hoges, doges, cates and they live together.” (Smith; Amanda)

“I cannot account for the apathy of this community, in relation to the numerous and increasing fierce foreign dogs allowed to range about, or not safely secured in their owners’ yards.”

“I think it is a scandalous thing that those whose duty it is to see their salary paid, do not see the other part of their duty, to look after these animals and report them to the Magistrate, as often as they are loose or their chain too near the door path.”

“Dogs ought not to be allowed their liberty in any yard, that will seize a person approaching the house in the day time. If the owners do not wish visitors, let them notify that they keep a savage dog within, to prevent calls.” (Letter to the Editor, March 12, 1857)

“… and if any dog shall injure or destroy any sheep or cattle, goats, hogs, fowls or other property belonging to any person other than the owner of such dog, the owner shall be liable in damages to the person injured, for the value of the property so injured or destroyed …”

“… and it shall be the duty of the owner to confine or destroy such dog, and if he neglects – or refuse to do so, he shall in event of any further damage being done to the person or property of any person, by such dog …”

“… in addition to paying the person injured for such damage, pay the cost of the trial, together with a fine often dollars or in default of the payment of such fine, be imprisoned at hard labor for the term of thirty days, and it shall be lawful for any other person to destroy said dog.” (Approved by the King, July 11, 1851)

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by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Experiment Stations

Members of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association were typically sugar plantations or mill companies and individuals who were directly interested in sugar production. HSPA was self-funded by the industry through self-assessments on each ton of sugar produced. Each plantation company contributed based on the tons sugar produced.

“This Association shall be known as the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association and shall have for its objects the improvement of the sugar industry, the support of an experimental station and laboratory, the maintenance of a sufficient supply of labor, and the development of agriculture in general.”

“Members of this Association may be Sugar plantations or Mill Companies and individuals who are directly interested in Sugar plantations or Mills, but the Trustees of this Association may at their discretion admit other plantation companies and individuals engaged in other agricultural pursuits.” (The Independent, November 27, 1895)

HSPA’s Experiment Station was founded in the days of the Republic of Hawai‘i on April 2, 1895 (the date that Dr. Walter Maxwell arrived at the port of Honolulu as the first Director of the Station and took up his work in science applied to sugar-cane culture and production.)

The HSPA Experiment Station had its beginnings in an era when farm science was theory, separated from farm practice by a great gulf of unbelief. Truly, the founders of the Experiment Station had a breadth of vision in the necessity for untrammeled research which was extraordinary.

The initial laboratory and office first opened on the ground floor of the Robinson building, corner of Nuʻuanu and King streets. It was later moved to Makiki (on Makiki Street, near Wilder on land leased from the Kapiʻolani Estate.) HSPA later purchased adjoining land from the Lishman family, and acquired the fee of the leased site.

A building was built in 1904 to house offices and laboratories being “ … equipped in modern fashion, with especial regard to the use to which it is to be put. The rooms are large and are provided with sufficient shelves, drawers, etc., the special bug room and the outdoor cages furnish ample facilities for conducting breeding experiments; and, in fact, almost everything in the way of equipment is present that could be desired”. (Grammer)

In 1919, following restructuring after WWI, the Station’s programs of work included: Entomology (focusing on natural enemies of the leafhopper;) Botany and Forestry (focusing on Forestry work, establishment of nurseries and stations on all islands; and pineapple work in accordance with our contract with the Hawaiian Pineapple Packers’ Association) …

… Chemistry (Fertilizer control work, analytical work as needed by the plantations; soil surveys; and research work on Hawaiian soils;) Sugar Technology (Mill inspections and laboratory investigations on mill operations;) and Agriculture (field experimentation on fertilization, cultivation, irrigation, etc., and extension of seedling work.)

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the HSPA Trustees, “resolved, that in light of the existing emergency, The Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association does pledge its fullest cooperation to the Government of the United States and places all its facilities, services and membership at the disposal of our Government.”

The onset of war forced the Station to suspend immediately work on some of its important projects; numerous members of the Station joined the Armed Forces, while other members left to devote their skill to some special phase of the war effort.

When the Honolulu Blood Bank was frantically calling for blood and more blood, the Station not only made its laboratory facilities and apparatus available to the Blood Bank but assigned numerous members of its technical staff to full-time work.

Members of the Chemistry department devoted considerable time and effort to war work, mainly concerned with such matters as chemical surveys, camouflage problems, weed control, soil sterilization, chemical-dipping problems, precautions in handling toxic materials, demolition issues, and gas decontamination problems.

To meet a very obvious need, the Pathology department cultured the penicillin-yielding mold and produced in large quantities products of the highest quality and potency which were made available to local physicians throughout the long and critical period during which penicillin was not available for the treatment of civilians.

The primary object of the Molasses laboratory had been to produce a high-quality yeast for human consumption. After December 7, however, the shortage of bakers’ yeast in Honolulu brought many requests to the Station for aid. It was found that the yeast slurry was excellent for bread making and the Station furnished yeast slurry to numerous bakeries.

One of the most active units of the Station during the war was the Library. It was practically a war-time utility and scarcely a day passed that a group of service men could not be found around the Library tables.

Information was requested on an amazing and endless variety of subjects such as chemistry, ordnance, agricultural crops, rat control, mosquito data and other material pertinent to camp or field work, diversified and soilless agriculture, insects, botany, and so on.

HSPA built its main experiment station and administrative facilities at Makiki (much of its former outplanting area is now the fields of the Makiki District Park;) in the early-1970s HSPA moved to a new facility in Aiea.

In addition to that, HSPA had a large leased area at Waipiʻo, the Helemano Variety Station, the Ewa Variety Station, the Kailua Substation, the Manoa Arboretum (later known as the Lyon Arboretum,) and a few other O‘ahu sites.

On the Island of Hawaii there were four cane variety units (in Hilo, Hāmākua, Kohala and the Hawai‘i Seed Nursery,) as well as other facilities. Kauai had the Kauai Variety Station at Lihue; the Maui substation was at HC&S and Molokai had sugar-cane quarantine facilities.

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