Images of Old Hawaiʻi

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

May The Forest Be With You

Please join us at the Friends of Hakalau Forest https://friendsofhakalauforest.org/membership/

The National Wildlife Refuge System is a series of lands and waters owned and managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). Wildlife conservation is at the heart of the refuge system.

In the Islands, prior to 1975, very little was known about the distribution and abundance of many of Hawai’i’s forest birds or the extent and quality of their forest habitat. From 1976 to 1981, the FWS conducted intensive forest bird and habitat surveys on the main Hawaiian Islands.

Data from this “Hawai‘i Forest Bird Survey” demonstrated a high density of endangered forest birds within and around the Shipman Ranch, a large privately owned parcel surrounded by State and other private lands, on the eastern side of Hawai’i Island.

In 1985, the FWS, with the active involvement and support of The Nature Conservancy, purchased Shipman Ranch lands and established the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (Hakalau Forest). Later, other nearby privately owned parcels were purchased or donated to the refuge.

The Hakalau Forest consists of two distinct units. The Hakalau Forest Unit is a 32,830-acre parcel on the windward slopes of Mauna Kea on Hawai’i Island. It was established to protect and manage endangered forest birds and their rainforest habitat.

This higher refuge contains some of the finest remaining stands of native rain forest in Hawai‘i and habitat for dozens of critically endangered species including seven birds, one insect, one mammal and 20 plants found nowhere else in the world. Currently, it is the only place in Hawai’i where native forest bird populations are stable or increasing.

The refuge provides essential habitat for three endangered honeycreepers (‘Akiapola’au, Hawai’i Creeper ‘Alawi and ‘Akepa), one threatened species (‘I’iwi) and one threatened waterfowl species (Nene – Hawai’i’s state bird that was reintroduced to the refuge in 1996).

Reforestation at the upper elevations of the Hakalau unit of the refuge has increased available habitat and control of feral animals has enhanced habitat quality.

Because of this management effort, the refuge has the highest density of three Hawai’i island endemic endangered bird species, the ‘Akiapola’au, Hawai’i Creeper and Hawai’i ‘Akepa, each with populations in the low thousands. These birds are also found in a few other areas of Hawai’i Island but are in lower densities.

The refuge is one of the few areas on Hawai’i Island where Nene can reproduce freely thanks to protection and small-mammal predator control. Occasionally, Hawaiian Ducks or Koloa are found in stock ponds and along rivers in remote areas in the Hakalau Forest Unit.

In 1997 the FWS added the Kona Forest Unit through a purchase of 5,300-acres south of Kailua-Kona, on the slopes of Mauna Loa. In 2019, an additional 10,000 acres were added to the Kona Unit through the purchase of McCandless Ranch lands that are adjacent to the original parcel, making the total acreage for the Kona Forest Unit 15,448-acres.

The lower elevation Kona Forest Unit is predominantly ‘ōhi‘a trees with an understory of nonnative trees and shrubs and home to a number of endangered birds, plants and one insect.

The primary purpose of this unit is to protect, conserve and manage this native forest for threatened or endangered species.  The few remaining wild Hawaiian Crows, or ‘Alala, were found as recently as 2002.

At will public access is not allowed at Hakalau Forest Refuge for a variety of reasons – with the primary one being that the analysis and public scoping conducted during the development of the current management plan found the risks posed to the sensitive native resources were too great.

These risks include the introduction of invasive plants and animals, diseases, and hazards such as fire. Furthermore, the Refuge does not have the types of access or infrastructure necessary to accommodate public visitation in a safe and manageable manner.

Despite Hakalau Forest Refuge not being an ‘open’ refuge, there are still ways for the public to experience the wonders of the refuge, these include:

  1. Refuge-sponsored events and tours
  2. Private tour with one of the guides that is permitted to conduct tours at the Refuge, and
  3. Participating in a volunteer service trip. During these trips, the volunteers plant native trees, work in the greenhouses, or help with other refuge tasks. (Lots here is from the Friends and the FWS Hakalau Forest Refuge.)

I am a Board member on the Friends of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge.  Check out https://friendsofhakalauforest.org/

Please join us at the Friends of Hakalau Forest https://friendsofhakalauforest.org/membership/

May The Forest Be With You!

Remember, it is for the birds.

© 2025 Ho‘okuleana LLC

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Kanawai

In ancient times, native Hawaiians drew their water supplies from fresh water streams, springs, lakes and shallow wells.

For centuries, Hawaiians recognized the life giving qualities and significance and value of water to their survival.  Water is life; water is wealth.

You could draw water from only the upper parts of the stream. Bathing was to be done downstream. Damaging irrigation systems or harming the water source was severely punished. Water conservation was a preeminent law of the land.  (HBWS)

The Hawaiian word for ‘law’ is kānāwai – it is interesting to note that the literal translation of kānāwai is ‘relating to water.’  Traditional Hawaiian law initially developed around the management and use of water.  (Sproat)

The first laws or rules of any consequence that the ancient Hawaiians ever had are said to have been those relating to water.  The rules were undoubtedly simple at first.  The supply of water was usually ample to satisfy the requirements of the land; cultivation on a large scale for purposes of export was unknown. (Perry, Hawaiʻi Supreme Court)

In pre-Captain Cook times, taro played a vital role in Hawaiian culture. It was not only the Hawaiians’ staple food but the cultivation of kalo was at the very core of Hawaiian culture and identity.  The early Hawaiians probably planted kalo in marshes near the mouths of rivers.

Over years of expansion of kalo lo‘i (flooded taro patches) up slopes and along rivers, kalo cultivation in Hawai‘i reached a unique level of engineering and sustainable sophistication.  The irrigation systems enabled them to turn vast areas into farm lands, feeding a thriving population over the centuries before Westerners arrived.

Kalo lo‘i systems are typically a set of adjoining terraces that are typically reinforced with stone walls and soil berms. Wetland taro thrives on flooded conditions, and cool, circulating water is optimal for taro growth, thus a system may include one or more irrigation ditches, or ‘auwai, to divert water into and out of the planting area.  (McElroy)

Dams that diverted water from the stream were a low loose wall of stones with a few clods here and there, high enough only to raise water sufficiently to flow into the ʻauwai, which entered it at almost level.

The quantity of water awarded to irrigate the loʻi was according to the number of workers and the amount of work put into the building of the ʻauwai.  Water rights of others taking water from the main stream below the dam had to be respected, and no ʻauwai was permitted to divert more than half the flow from a stream.  (Handy & Handy)

In some ʻauwai, not all of the water was used; after irrigating a few patches, the ditch returned the remainder of the water to the stream.  (YaleLawJournal)  By rotation with others on the ʻauwai, a grower would divert water from the ʻauwai into his kalo. The next, in turn, would draw off water for his allotted period of time.  (KSBE)

Loʻi dependent on an ʻauwai also took their share of water in accordance with a time schedule, from a few hours at a time day or night up to two or three days. In times of drought the luna wai (water boss) had the right to adjust the sharing of available water to meet needs.  (Handy & Handy)

With ‘contact’ (arrival of Captain Cook in 1778,) Western influence played into the management and use.  Kingdom laws formalized and reduced Hawaiian customs and traditions to writing.

The Declaration of Rights and Constitution of 1839-40, which was the first Western-style constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, expressly acknowledged that the land, along with all of its resources, “was not (the King’s) private property. It belongs to the Chiefs and the people in common, of whom (the King) was the head and had the management of landed property.”

In 1860, an act was passed providing for the appointment in each election district throughout the Kingdom of three suitable persons to act as commissioners to decide on all controversies respecting rights of way and rights of water between private individuals or between private individuals and the government (the powers and duties of the commissioners were finally, by act of 1907, transferred to the circuit judges.) (Perry)

Then groundwater was pursued when James Campbell envisioned supplying the arid area of ʻEwa with water.  He commissioned California well-driller James Ashley to drill a well on his Honouliuli Ranch.  In 1879, Ashley drilled Hawaiʻi’s first artesian well; Campbell’s vision had made it possible for Hawaiʻi’s people to grow sugar cane on the dry lands of the ʻEwa Plain.

Subsequent well production expanded and diversified the collection and distribution of water.  (Now, nearly all of Hawaiʻi’s drinking water comes from groundwater sources.

Constitution amendments in the 1978 Constitutional Convention (later ratified by the people,) put water as a public resource.  Under the State Constitution (Article XI,) the State has an obligation to protect, control and regulate the use of Hawaii’s water resources for the benefit of its people.

Ground and surface water resources are held in public trust for the benefit of the citizens of the state.  The people of Hawaiʻi are beneficiaries and have a right to have water protected for their use and/or benefit.

Legal challenges and subsequent decisions by the Hawaiʻi Supreme Court identified four public trust purposes: Maintenance of water in their natural state; Domestic water use of the general public, particularly drinking water; Exercise of Native Hawaiian traditional and customary rights; and Reservations of water for Hawaiian Home Lands.

In 1987, the State Water Code was adopted by the Hawaiʻi Legislature, which set in place various layers of protection for all waters in the Hawaiian Islands; it formed the Commission on Water Resource Management.

The Hawaiʻi Water Plan adopted by the Water Commission (that includes the Water Resource Protection Plan, Water Quality Plan, State Water Projects Plan, Agricultural Water Use and Development Plan and Water Use and Development Plans for each County) is critical for the effective and coordinated protection, conservation, development and management of the State’s water resources.

A comment by an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court 100-years ago holds true today,  “Water rights are destined to play an important part in the future of Hawaiʻi as they have in its past.”

“The growth of urban communities and the agricultural development of the territory render inevitable the conservation and use in an increasing degree of the available waters, with probably consolidation of some rights and new distributions of others. The subject will lose none of its interest with the passage of time.”  (Perry)

We are reminded of the importance of respect and responsibility we each share for the environment and our natural and cultural resources – including our responsibility to protect and properly use and manage our water resources.

I was honored to have served for 4½-years as the Chair of the State’s Commission on Water Resource Management overseeing, managing and regulating the State’s water resources.

We are fortunate people living in a very special place.  Let’s continue to work together to make Hawaiʻi a great place to live.

© 2025 Hoʻokuleana LLC

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Kapalilua

“Kona … had three marked areas – Kekaha in the north [from around Honokōhau to Keahualono, the Kona-Kohala Boundary], central Kona, and [Kapalilua] in the south [from Honokua and south to Manukā].” (Cordy)

In Kekaha (a shortened version of Kekaha-wai-‘ole o nā Kona” (waterless Kekaha of the Kona district) in the northern portion of Kona (Maly)) “the lands are increasingly more arid”.

“[T]he central portions [of Kona] had arid shorelines with shallow soil in pockets amidst rocky outcrops and bare lava flows … High rainfall was present ca. 1-2 miles inland, and here soil was thicker … Farther above were the ‘ōhia forests”.

“South of central Kona are the [Kapalilua] lands … These lands are subject to frequent lava flows from Mauna Loa … High cliffs are common along the [Kapalilua] coast.”  (Cordy)  Desha states that “Kapalilua was a land of starvation.”

“Over the period of several centuries, areas with the richest natural resources became populated and perhaps crowded … the population began expanding to the kona (leeward side) and more remote regions of the island.”

“In Kona, communities were initially established along sheltered bays with access to fresh water and rich marine fisheries. The primary ‘chiefly’ centers of Kona were established at several locations – these being in the Kailua (Kaiakeakua) vicinity, Kahalu‘u-Keauhou, Ka‘awaloa-Kealakekua, and at Hōnaunau.”

“Smaller outlying communities were established further south, in the region traditionally known as Kapalilua, at areas such as Kauhakō-Ho‘okena, Ka‘ohe, Pāpā, Miloli‘i, Kalihi, Honomalino, and Kapu‘a, with even smaller communities at areas in between the large kulana kauhale (village communities).” (Maly)

“In the time of intensive native cultivation, South Kona was planted in zones determined by rainfall and moisture. Near the dry seacoast potatoes were grown in quantity, and coconuts where sand or soil among the lava near the shore favored their growth.”

“Up to 1,000 feet grew small bananas which rarely fruited, and poor cane; from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, they prospered increasingly. From approximately 1,000 to 2,000 feet, breadfruit flourished.”

“Taro was planted dry from an altitude of 1,000 to 3,000 feet. An old method of planting taro in Kona, described to us by Lakalo at Ho‘okena, was to plant the cuttings in the lower, warmer zone where they would start to grow quickly …”

“… and then to transplant them to the higher forest zone where soil was rich and deep and where moisture was ample for their second period of growth, in which their corms are said to have developed to an average of 25 pounds each.” (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

Ellis, part of Captain Cook’s crew verifies the mauka planting, “After ascending part of the hill, which was covered in every direction with plantations of sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, tarrow, plantains, and breadfruit trees, which were by far the largest they had seen, they arrived at a spot of land entirely uncultivated, and overrun with long grass and ferns.”

“At some distance from this were four or five small huts, the habitations of a few poor people, whose business appeared to be to cultivate several plantations of tarrow that probably belonged to some of the arees or principal people.”

“They had nothing to dispose of, but two small fowls, a few roots of tarrow, and a small quantity of poey as they called it, which was a kind of pudding made of potatoes, mashed up with water, and constitutes the principal part of the food of the lower class  of people.”

“The soil in this part was light, and of a different kind to that below. Having purchased the fowls and tarrow, they left the huts, and proceeded to the wood, which was about two miles distant, through a considerable tract of waste ground, entirely over-run with long grass, ferns, and the dracaena terminalis …”

“… the foot-path was sometimes pretty good, but in general stony, though not in so great a degree as the lower parts: these stones were evidently the production of the volcano. …”

“As they proceeded, they arrived at a long tract of wild plantain-trees, . which far exceed the cultivated ones in size; they produce fruit like them, but it never arrives at perfection. The path now became very dirty and slippery, the soil being a ruff yellow clay, interspersed with large stones.”

“They saw a variety of trees, one species of which was very tall and large, and its leaves greatly resembled those of the spice-trees of Vandiemen’s Land [Tasmania]; this is the wood of which the natives make their canoes. …”

“The next morning was fixed upon for their return to the ships; but they took a different route to their former one, proceeding nearly in a WNW direction, through innumerable plantations of the paper mulberry-tree, bread-fruit, and plantain-trees, which formed an extensive garden, and rendered the houses which were situated there delightfully pleasant.” (Ellis)

In comparing central Kona to Kapalilua, missionary William Ellis notes, “The northern part, including Kairua, Kearake’kua and Honaunau, contains a dense population, and the sides of the mountain are cultivated to a considerable extent …”

“… but the south part presents a most inhospitable aspect.  Its population is thin, consisting principally of fishermen, who cultivate but little land, and that at the distance of from five to seven miles from the shore.” (Ellis)

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by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Jacques Étienne Victor Arago

Jacques Arago  (March 6, 1790 –  November 27, 1855) was a French writer, artist and explorer.
 
He joined Louis de Freycinet on his 1817 voyage around the world aboard the ship Uranie.
 
In his book, ‘Narrative of a Voyage Round the World,’ he writes:
 
“I made the Tour of the World, but not as a seaman: the vessel carried me, and I wandered with it.”
 
“On board the Uranie, I traversed the Indian Seas; visited the South Sea Archipelago; and after doubling Cape Horn, and spending three years in dangers and fatigues, saluted the Atlantic as an old friend, and re-visited the beloved coasts of ancient Europe.”
 
“During our long voyage I became acquainted with numerous tribes; hunted with the Brasilian and the Guanche; danced with the negroes of Africa; and slept under the hut of the Sandwich islander.”
 
“I have seen much, and observed much.  I visited some little known islands at which our ship did not anchor.”
 
“I availed myself of the length of our different rendezvous to make excursions into the interior of countries yet uncivilized, which were always amusing, and sometimes dangerous; but which enabled me to collect a variety of observations on the manners, arts, customs, and habits of the different nations which inhabited them.”
 

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

ʻĀina Mauna

ʻĀina Mauna, or mountain lands, reflects a term used affectionately by elder Hawaiians to describe the upper regions of all mountain lands.

In pre-Contact times, these upper forested lands were left relatively untouched, as they were integral to the functioning of the ahupua‘a due to the water they provided to the lowlands. These upland forests were considered wao akua (“realm of the gods”) and were therefore protected by kapu.  (Iwashita)

Small cultivated areas were located primarily in the lowlands, which were extensively cleared for agriculture.  Most permanent settlement initially was near the ocean and at sheltered beaches, which provided access to good fishing grounds, as well as facilitating convenient canoe travel.

Koa tree canoe logs were cut from the ʻĀina Mauna; it is estimated that it takes up to 125-years or more to grow a koa tree large enough for a voyaging canoe.

Traditional dwellings (hale pili) were constructed of native woods lashed together with cordage most often made from olonā. Pili grass was a preferred thatching. Lauhala (pandanus leaves) or ti leaf bundles, called pe‘a, were other covering materials used.

In addition, implements incorporated into hula were made of wood and other forest products.  Weapons used wood products for spears, daggers, clubs, shark tooth and other wooden weapons.

With ‘Contact’ came changes to the ʻĀina Mauna.

In 1778, Captain Cook left goats and pigs.  In 1793, Captain George Vancouver gave Kamehameha cattle (which he placed a kapu on to allow herds to grow.)  In 1803, American Richard Cleveland presented horses ‐ a stallion and a mare ‐ to Kamehameha.

The goats, pigs and cattle started to have negative impacts on the Islands’ mauka lands.

On top of that, ʻiliahi (sandalwood) became first recognized as a commercial product in Hawai‘i in 1791 by Captain Kendrick of the Lady Washington, when he instructed sailors to collect cargo of sandalwood.

Trade in Hawaiian sandalwood began in the early-1790s; by 1805 it had become an important export item. Unfortunately, the harvesting of the trees was not sustainably managed (they cut whatever they could, they didn’t replant) and over-harvesting of ʻiliahi took place.

By 1830, the trade in sandalwood had completely collapsed.  Hawaiian forests were exhausted and sandalwood from India and other areas in the Pacific drove down the price in China and made the Hawaiian trade unprofitable.

Through King Kamehameha III’s Act No. 2, Chapter III, Article I, Chapter VI, Section VII of April 27, 1846, ‘forestry’ began in Hawaiʻi.

“The forests and timber growing therein, shall be considered as government property, and under the special care of the minister of the interior, who may from time to time convert the products thereof into money for the benefit of government.”

By the late-1800s, the sugar industry had been lobbying for forest protection, as the cattle grazing and denudation of upland forests threatened the water supply critical to sustaining the sugar economy.

A lasting legacy of that era was the implementation of the Forest Reserve System, created by the Territorial Government of Hawai’i through Act 44 on April 25, 1903.

That year, on May 13, 1903, the Territory of Hawaiʻi, with the backing of the Hawaiʻi Sugar Planters’ Association, established the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry.  (HDOA)  By 1930, a million acres of land – nearly 25% of Hawaii’s land area – were in the Forest Reserve System.

Forest reserves were useful for two primary purposes: water production for the Territory’s agricultural industries, and timber production to meet the growing demand for wood products.

The forest reserve system should not lead to “the locking up from economic use of a certain forest area.” Even in critical watersheds the harvesting of old trees “is a positive advantage, in that it gives the young trees a chance to grow, while at the same time producing a profit from the forests. (Ralph Sheldon Hosmer; LRB)

And, forests are not just about trees.

Virtually all our fresh water comes from the forest, also clean air, recreation areas, habitat for native species, plants for cultural practices and woods for fine arts are among the thousands of forest benefits.

Our forests present endless opportunities for both residents and visitors; Hawaii’s forests offer employment, recreation and resources – including ecological goods and services.

Ecological goods include clean air, and abundant fresh water; while ecological services include purification of air and water, plant and wildlife habitat, maintenance of biodiversity, decomposition of wastes, soil and vegetation generation and renewal, groundwater recharge, greenhouse gas mitigation and aesthetically pleasing landscapes.

Water, wildlife and wood are just a few of the products found in our forests.

A little side note related to the ʻĀina Mauna … we prepared the ʻĀina Mauna Legacy Program, its Implementation Work Plan  and Environmental Assessment for the Hawaiian Homes Commission (they unanimously approved all.)

The ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program is DHHL’s long‐range planning document geared to restore and protect approximately 56,000‐acres (about ¼-of all the DHHL lands in the Islands) of native Hawaiian forest on Mauna Kea that is ecologically, culturally and economically self‐sustaining for the Hawaiian Home Lands Trust, its beneficiaries and the community.

We were honored and proud when our planning document, the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program, received awards: the “Environment/Preservation Award” from the American Planning Association‐Hawai‘i Chapter and the “Koa: Standing the Test of Time Award” by the Hawai‘i Forest Industry Association.  The image shows some forest of the ʻĀina Mauna.

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