Images of Old Hawaiʻi

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Orteric

A century after Captain James Cook’s arrival in Hawaiʻi, sugar plantations started to dominate the landscape.  What encouraged the development of plantations in Hawaiʻi?

For one, the gold rush and settlement of California opened a lucrative market.  Likewise, the Civil War virtually shut down Louisiana sugar production during the 1860s, enabling Hawai‘i to compete with elevated prices for sugar.

In addition, the Treaty of Reciprocity-1875 between the US and the Kingdom of Hawai‘i eliminated the major trade barrier to Hawai‘i’s closest and major market.  Through the treaty, the US gained Pearl Harbor and Hawai‘i’s sugar planters received duty-free entry into US markets.

However, a shortage of laborers to work in the growing (in size and number) sugar plantations became a challenge.  The only answer was imported labor.

Starting in the 1850s, when the Hawaiian Legislature passed “An Act for the Governance of Masters and Servants,” a section of which provided the legal basis for contract-labor system, labor shortages were eased by bringing in contract workers from Asia, Europe and North America.

There were three big waves of workforce immigration: Chinese – 1852; Japanese – 1885 and Filipinos – 1905.  Several smaller, but substantial, migrations also occurred: Portuguese – 1877; Norwegians – 1880; Germans – 1881; Puerto Ricans – 1900; Koreans – 1902 and Spanish – 1907.

Reasons why people left their homeland to come work in the Hawai‘i sugar plantations varied: some were looking for opportunity and a better life; some were looking for work (there was economic turmoil in their homeland); some left because of political strife … some thought they could make/save some money and return.

An often-overlooked issue with the emigration of these foreign workers to the Islands was the means of getting there.  Many sugar workers came in groups.  One such (and not necessarily the norm) was the sailing of the Orteric.

Of British registry, “The Orteric is a large vessel, fitted with accommodations for about twenty cabin passengers. And is a large cargo carrier, being able to accommodate 10,000 tons dead weight. She can steam twelve to thirteen knots an hour and has 3000 indicated horsepower.”

“She belongs to the Weir line and is on her maiden voyage, having been launched at Greenock, England, on January 28, 1911.  She will probably join other Weir liners, which operate between Seattle and Orient ports.”

“She has a length of 460 feet and is fifty seven feet breadth. … The Orteric sailed from London on February 16 [1911] and at Oporto picked up a batch of immigrants, taking on 305 there. At Lisbon 260 people were taken on, and at Gibraltar 960 Spaniards were sent on the vessel.”

“‘They appear to be a fine lot of people,’ said Secretary of the Territory Mott-Smith, when he went among them.  Dr Victor Clark head of the territorial immigration board agreed with him. The doctor stated that the Portuguese came from agricultural districts back of Lisbon, while the Spanish came from the districts of Seville land mountain districts.” (Hawaiian Gazette, April 14, 1911)

“The immigrants are decidedly glad that their journey has ended.  ‘Vive la Republique’ shouted one husky looking Spaniard, as he fairly leaped from the gangway of the steamer to the wharf.”

“He shouted so that the shed resounded with his exultation.  He leaped as he sped through the shed and when he reached the open air and felt the soil of Hawaii under his feet he waved his hat.” (Hawaiian Gazette, April 14, 1911)

But the arrival was about the only good news about their voyage to Hawai‘i.

“Death stalked among the fifteen hundred Spanish and Portuguese Immigrants aboard the British immigrant steamer Orteric, which arrived yesterday after its long voyage from Spain and Portugal. Fifty eight deaths were recorded among the children during the voyage.”

“Measles was the cause as entered on the ships log and in all but one instance the bodies were consigned to the sea for burial but the federal quarantine officers detected evidences of scarlet fever …”

“… and the territorial board of health, which looked after the body of the child who died just as the steamer was about to enter the harbor announced last evening that death was due to scarlet fever and the immigrants were ordered sent to quarantine Island.” (Hawaiian Gazette, April 14, 1911)

“[A] Portuguese middle aged and carrying heavy bundles ran down the gangway his eyes almost glittering as he ran through the shed knocking his countrymen right and left shouting: ‘Away from that jail away from that jail!’”

“He turned a look of disgust upon the ship and it is little wonder he wished to leave it for death and filth had full sway upon the vessel for nearly fifty days.”  (Hawaiian Gazette, April 14, 1911)

“Upon the arrival of the vessel at Honolulu an inspection thereof was made by the customs officers under the direction of the Collector of the Port, who thereafter rendered a report to the Collector of the Port, wherein they found that the master of the vessel, James F. Findlay, had violated the … Passenger Act of Aug. 2, 1882”. (US Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, July 12, 1915))

The Passenger Act was implemented to address reforms to passenger conditions on board ships and set minimum standards for berths, light and ventilation, food, hospitals, discipline and cleanliness and reporting requirements upon entering US ports.

“Owing to the great number of deaths, the grand jury, which was in session at the time, went on board and made an exhaustive examination of the vessel.”

“On the lower deck on which passengers were berthed neither latrines nor conveniences were provided for the passengers, in many instances empty meat cans being used; all of the latrines were on the upper deck and could be used only by passengers able or willing to climb there, and they were flushed but twice a day.”

“No proper method was adopted to protect the vessel against the filthy conditions which were thus necessarily created; the decks were not washed and the filth apparently was permitted to remain, in alternate layers of filth, sawdust and disinfectants …”

“… the result was an almost intolerable stench which filled the dark and poorly ventilated compartments and existed even up to the day when the vessel was examined by the grand jury. No conveniences were originally provided for the use of children and such as were provided were improvised after the vessel commenced her voyage, and were wholly unfit from all standpoints.”

“Although the vessel crossed the equator twice on the voyage, no bathrooms were provided, and up to within a few weeks of the completion of the voyage the only way in which a bath of any kind could be taken was in the public washroom.”

“No attempt appears to have been made to muster the passengers on deck when weather permitted as required by law; or to air or clean the bedding during the entire voyage, and when the vessel arrived at Honolulu it became necessary to burn all the mattresses.”

“The grand jury stated that no opportunities were afforded the passengers for keeping clean and that it is to be wondered no more deaths occurred than actually took place.” (American Marine Engineer, Jan 1912)

“Charged with the worst case of neglect of steerage passengers on record under the Passenger Act of 1882, the owners of the British steamer Orteric have been fined $7,960 by Acting Secretary Cable of the Department of Commerce and Labor.”

“Among her 1,242 passengers there were in the eight weeks of her voyage fifty-eight deaths, being children; the births numbered fourteen; the sexes were not properly segregated during the larger part of the time …”

“… the ventilation of the ship was inadequate and greately increased the mortality rate; the hospital facilities were and without proper equipment, while the sanitary conditions of the vessel were almost beyond belief.”

“Acting Secretary Cable, after giving ample opportunity for the ship’s agent to make a defense, directed today that the full penalties be imposed.” (New Mexico Review, Dec 14, 1911)

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by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Temperance?

“There were about two hundred and sixty foreigners [in the late-1820s to early-1830s] at Honolulu (some intelligent and respectable), most of whom claimed the privilege either of making, vending, or consuming the deleterious beverage, who, under the mal-administration of the Bokis, had enjoyed it too much to their liking …”

“… while many a sailor boy, beset by land sharks, far from friends and home, parted with his money, clothes, reputation, and peace, at a dear rate, at the yawning, pestiferous rum holes in Honolulu.”

“Had the proprietors been indulged to the extent of their wishes, they would have had not only successive crews from sea, but the people of the land, and foreign residents, pay them a large profit for supplying the perpetual means of excitement, drunkenness, confusion, and ruin.”

“Kaahumanu, Kuakini, Hoapili, Kaikioewa, Naihe, and Kinau, who took a noble stand against this terrible enemy, deserved the thanks of ship-owners, and of the world, instead of the sneers and curses of the vile, and the strenuous opposition of the proud and hardened abettors of the traffic …”

“… who, in defiance of the government, and reckless of the weal and woe of their customers, were determined to persevere in it. But unreasonable as were these dram-sellers …”

“… it is not supposed that drunkard-makers and drunkard-killers at the Islands, differed materially in heart or principle, from those of the same class in civilized towns and cities, where the general voice of the wise and good is against this dangerous traffic.”

“In about 1831, Voluntary pledges of abstinence were encouraged by the missionaries with success. At this juncture a temperance society was formed, embracing the four noblemen, Adams [Kuakini], Hoapili, Kaikieowa and Naihe, and other chiefs.”

“The resolutions which they adopted (not quite up to the standard of later times), and to which thousands in the different islands agreed, were creditable, and being translated into English, are as follows:”

“Hawaiian Temperance Society.

  1. We will not drink ardent spirits for pleasure.
  2. We will not traffic in ardent spirits for gain.
  3. We will not engage in distilling ardent spirts.
  4. We will not treat our relatives, acquaintances, or strangers, with ardent spirits, except with the consent of a temperate physician.
  5. We will not give ardent spirits to workmen on account of their labor.”

“No ruler, who is responsible for the peace of the community, could, therefore, rightfully license a grog-shop in such a community as was then found at Honolulu.”

“How utterly impracticable would it be on board a ship of war, or within the walls of a State’s Prison, with the most rigid rules, to restrain rum-loving men from confusion and violence, if a rum-seller were licensed to sell or give them freely the intoxicating draught.”

“Some dealers, admitting that there might be reasons for restraining the natives from ruining their families, their souls, and bodies, at the dram-shop, besought the governor to give them license to sell to foreigners only. To this he replied sarcastically, ‘To horses, cattle, and hogs, sell rum, but not to real men.’” (Hiram Bingham; 21 years)

But, what did the missionaries do/how did they feel only 10-years prior?

As noted in James Hunnewell’s log for their day of departure, “October 24, 1819 (O)n the passengers examining their stores, they found a short supply of that article at day light Capt. Blanchard went up to Boston at 11 am (October 24, 1819).  Captain Blanchard returned from town with a supply of bread & spirits for the missionaries.” (James Hunnewell Log)

Lucia Ruggles Holman confirms this in her diary’s November 6, 1819 entry, “Saturday Morning, 15th day after sailing: My Dear Brothers: We weighed anchor soon after you left us. A gentle gale wafted us about 10 miles that day, when we had a calm, which detained us till the next morning.”

“A kind providence seemed to order it for the best, however, for, in the course of the evening, it was ascertained that our soft bread and crackers and all the ardent spirits were left behind.  Consequently, a boat was sent off for Boston that night, which did not return until the next day towards night.” (Holman)

So, the departure of the Pioneer Company, bound for Hawai‘i was delayed a day, so the missionaries could stock up on “that article,” their “ardent spirits” [strong distilled liquors].

While not necessarily a booze cruise, the missionaries continued to have their alcohol.  Shortly after their arrival in the Islands, anchoring April 4, 1820 at Kailua Kona, they were soon ‘treated’ with glasses of wine …

“As soon as we approached the beach we were discovered by the natives, who flocked-about the boat in such swarms that it was with much difficulty we could land and force our way to the King’s house, which was about 20 rods from the water.”

“When we arrived at the door we found the King at breakfast on his mat; we took our seats and were soon treated with a glass of wine, and invited to stay and dine. Soon after the Queens made their appearance, each attended by a servant holding a feather fly brush in their hands.”  (April 7, 1820, Samuel Ruggles)

Lucia Holman referenced the same dining experience, noting, “We returned about 1 Oc. to the house of his Royal Majesty (Oreho-reho, son of the deceased King) where we dined upon roast pig, fowls, vegetables, well dressed, etc., etc. – a glass of wine crowned the dish.” (April 7, 1820, Lucia Holman)

Others supplied them with the fermented beverage … “The fourth day after our arrival, the King sent us a Mahogany (koa) round table with six drawers, which answer the place of a cupboard.”

“A few weeks after our arrival on shore we were visited by 2 English Captains (whalers) who had come to these Islands for water and provisions. From them we secured many valuable presents, such as crockery, wine, butter, and each of us a chair.” (Lucia Holman)

When Ruggles and Whitney delivered Humehume home to his father King Kaumualiʻi on May 3, 1820, their ‘excellent’ supper was topped with brandy, gin and wine …

“A supper was soon provided for us consisting of a couple of hogs baked, whole after the American manner, several fowls and a dog cooked after the style of the Island, together with potatoes, tarro, bananas, cocoanuts, and watermelons, brandy, gin, wines, &c. The table was set in good style; our supper was indeed excellent.” (May 3, 1820, Samuel Ruggles)

Anthony D Allen (a former slave from the continent) had his home (including about a dozen other houses) at about where the Washington Middle School is situated.  Several references note his property as a “resort;” “… it is a favourite resort of the more respectable of the seamen who visit Honoruru. …” (Reverend Charles Stewart)  It may have been Waikiki’s first hotel.

“His plantation is two miles from the Mission House on the plain, towards Waititi. The road to it, although on the plain, is uncultivated and entirely unshaded, affords the most pleasant walk in the immediate vicinity of Honoruru.”

Allen entertained often and made his property available for special occasions.  “King (Kauikeaouli – Kamehameha III) had a Grand Dinner at AD Allen’s. The company came up at sunset. Music played very late.”  (Reynolds – Scruggs, HJH)

Missionaries Hiram and Sybil Bingham also visited.  Sybil noted in her diary, “To avoid walking in the heat, we made ourselves ready by ten – locked up our houses and set off. A multitude had assembled by the time we were at the gate, to attend us. Our little handcart, the only wheels, I believe on the Island, served for a carriage for those for whom the walk might prove too great.”

“He set upon the table decanters and glasses with wine and brandy to refresh us”.  They ended dinner “with wine and melons”.  (June 24, 1820, Sybil Bingham)

As late as 1827, the Honolulu mission ran in effect a liquor store for its members. From May 15, 1826, to May 2, 1827: “Hiram Bingham bought on his personal account 7 ½ gal. of wine, 6 ¾ gal., 1 pt. and a bottle of rum, 4 gal. of brandy, 1 doz. bottles of porter, and 4 bottles of port. Elisha Loomis bought 8 gal., 1 pt. of wine, 1 gal. of rum, and 1 ½ gal. of brandy.”

“Abraham Blatchley bought 4 gal. of brandy, 2 gal. of rum, and 2 gal. of gin. Joseph Goodrich bought 2 ½ gal. of wine and 1 qt. of rum. Samuel Ruggles bought 1 ¼ gal. of brandy and 2 ¼ gal. of wine. Levi Chamberlain bought 3 qts. of wine and 2 qts. of brandy. The Medical Department drew 4 gal. of rum.  After May 1827, recorded purchases dwindled to a stop.” (Greer)

We even see some references to beer (brewing and drinking) in missionary journals.  On November 19-20, 1824, missionary Elisha Loomis notes, “Yesterday and today I have been engaged in making beer and vinegar from a root called tee, which grows plentifully in these islands. It is the most sweet of any vegetable I ever tasted. The juice is nearly as sweet as molasses.”

On October 31, 1832, Clarissa Armstrong (wife of Reverend Richard Armstrong) noted, “Capt. Brayton has given me a little beer cask – it holds 6 quarts – Nothing could have been more acceptable.”

“I wanted to ask you for one, but did not like to. O how kind providence has been & is to us, in supplying our wants. The board have sent out hops – & I have some beer now a working. I should like to give you a drink.”

On July 24, 1836, Clarissa Armstrong notes (during an illness:) “We had a bottle of wine of which I drank … All the nourishment I took after leaving Honolulu til we reached Wailuku was two biscuit about the size of small crackers, & a bit of dried beef.”

“Drinks were my nourishment. Limes grow at Oahu & I obtained some for the voyage, which furnished me pleasant drink. Also a little beer which I had made.”

However, they shortly got on the bandwagon against liquor and encouraged King Kamehameha III and most of the chiefs to pledge themselves to total abstinence.  And, in part, became zealous preachers of temperance; the king himself frequently addressing the people on the subject.  (The King and others regularly fell off the water wagon.)

In March 1838, the first liquor license law was enacted, which prohibited all selling of liquors without a license under a fine of fifty dollars for the first offense, to be increased by the addition of fifty dollars for every repetition of the offense.  (The Friend, December 1887)

All houses for the sale of liquor were to be closed at ten o’clock at night, and from Saturday night until Monday morning.  Drunkenness was prohibited in the licensed houses under a heavy fine to the drinker, and the loss of his license to the seller.  (The Friend, December 1887)

In 1843, the seamen’s chaplain, Samuel C. Damon, started ‘The Temperance Advocate and Seamen’s Friend;’ he soon changed its name to simply “The Friend.”   Through it, he offered ‘Six Hints to seamen visiting Honolulu’ (the Friend, October 8, 1852,) his first ‘Hint,’ “Keep away from the grog shops.”

Later, in hopes that free drinking water would entice sailors to stay out of nearby grog shops, “The Temperance Legion has caused to be erected a Drinking Fountain at the corner of King and Bethel streets, on the Bethel premises – a neat and ornamental fountain. … ‘Free to all.’ … so the Friends of Temperance would cause a Fountain of pure water to (low through all coming time, where all may drink.” [dedicated, June 15, 1867] (The Friend, June 1, 1867) (The image shows the fountain at the Bethel.)

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by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Who Came Next?

Significant advances in radiocarbon dating and the targeted re-dating of key Eastern Polynesian and Hawaiian sites has strongly supported and suggested that initial Polynesian discovery and colonization of the Hawaiian Islands occurred between approximately AD 1000 and 1200.  (Kirch)

Who came next – the English, Japanese, Chinese, Spanish …?

English

In the dawn hours of January 18, 1778, on his third expedition, British explorer Captain James Cook on the HMS Resolution and Captain Charles Clerke of the HMS Discovery first sighted and made ‘Contact’ with what Cook named the Sandwich Islands (that were later named the Hawaiian Islands.)

But, was Cook the first foreigner to find Hawaiʻi?  Some suggest that Cook’s references to the Hawaiian interest in iron, and some of the iron implements noted by Cook’s crew at the time of his Contact suggest contact prior to the Englishmen Cook and his crew.

Since some of the terms for ‘iron’ also are applied to ‘foreigners,’ the indications are that the various Polynesians learned of iron, either directly through foreigners, or by means of wreckage from foreign ships.  The early Polynesians were not iron producers, because, valuing the metal as they did, they apparently were unable to obtain it by smelting.  (Stokes)

Japanese

There is reference to Japanese contact well before Cook’s time.  Kalākaua’s ‘The Legends and Myths of Hawaii’ titled ‘Iron Knife’.  It speaks of early Japanese visitors to the Islands and the Japanese captain’s sword – the time frame is about the 1300s.

“It was late in the afternoon that word had been brought to Wakalana that a strange vessel was approaching the coast. As it was high out of water and drifting broadside before the wind, it appeared to be of great size”.

“The name of the captain was Kaluiki-a-Manu; the four others were called Neleike, Malaea, Haakoa and Hika – all names of Hawaiian construction. Two of them – Neleike and Malaea – were women, the former being the sister of the captain.”

Wakalana “was charmed with the bright eyes and fair face of Neleike, the sister of the captain. He found a pleasure that was new to him in teaching her to speak his language, and almost the first use she made of [this] was to say ‘yes’ with it when he asked her to become his wife.”

“Neleike became the progenitor of a family which for generations showed the marks of her blood, and that the descendants of the others were plentiful thereafter, not only on Maui but in the neighborhood of Waimalo, on the island of Oahu.”

“The object of the rescued Japanese which attracted most attention was the sword accidentally preserved by the captain.  No such terrible knife had ever before been seen or dreamed of by the natives…. The sword of Kaluiki, the ransom of a king, remained for some generations with the descendants of Kukona; but what became of it in the end tradition fails to tell.”  (Kalākaua)

Japanese Junks

Japanese junks have been blown to sea, and finally stranded with their occupants upon distant islands, and have reached even the continent of America, in the 46th degree of north latitude.  (Jarves)

“[M]ention is made of several Japanese vessels reported in some of the Spanish-American ports on the Pacific. In 1617 a Japanese junk belonging to Magomé, was at Acapulco.” (Brooks)

“According to the traditions of the islands, several such junks had been wrecked upon Hawaii, before the islands were discovered by Captain Cook.”  (Brooks)

Hawai‘i had its share of Japanese contact, directedly in the Islands, as well as by sailors at sea.  Beachcombing finds of Japanese glass balls (fishing floats,) as well as marine debris from the 2011 Japan tsunami, suggest the possibility of earlier Japan contact with the Islands (especially in the context that a Japanese fishing boat and its survivors landed in the Islands in 1832.)

Chinese

“Every junk found adrift or stranded on the coast of North America, or on the Hawaiian or adjacent islands, has on examination proved to be Japanese, and no single instance of any Chinese vessel has ever been reported, nor is any believed to have existed.” (Brooks)

Spanish

Back to the ‘iron’ reference … the first written Hawaiian word is ‘Hamaite’ – it was spoken to Captain Cook at the time he made contact with the Islands and he wrote it in his journal.

It was made in reference to iron.  Some suggest it refers to Hematite (ferric oxide – a mineral form of iron oxide – that is Hematita in Spanish.)  However, others suggest ‘Hamaite’ is actually a Hawaiian expression of He maita‘i – good.  (Schutz) 

“There are many ways by which such people may get pieces of iron, or acquire the knowledge of the existence of such a metal, without ever having had an immediate connection with nations that use it.”

“It can hardly be doubted that it was unknown to all the inhabitants of this sea, before Magellan led the way into it; for no discoverer, immediately after his voyage, ever found any of this metal in their possession …”

“… though, in the course of our late voyages it has been observed, that the use of it was known at several islands, to which no former European ships had ever, as far as we know, found their way.” (Cook)

Spanish Galleons (1565 -1815 AD)

We know the Spanish crossed the Pacific, between the Philippines and Acapulco for 250-years.  The term Manila Galleons is used to refer to the trade route between Acapulco and Manila, which lasted from 1565 to 1815. (Alchetron)

The Manila Galleons made round-trip voyages once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean from the port of Acapulco (present-day Mexico) to Manila in the Philippines which were both part of New Spain.

Kulou (‘to bow down’) (1527 AD)

“Hernando Cortez, immediately after his conquest of Mexico, fitted out an expedition on the western coast to reinforce his countrymen …  [they] sailed from Zacatula, Mexico, Oct. 31, 1527.”  (Alexander) Two of his ships were lost during a storm [one is said to have landed in Hawai‘i]. (Univ of Wellington)

“A well known Hawaiian tradition relates that in the reign of Keliiokaloa, son of Umi, a foreign vessel was wrecked at Keei, South Kona, Hawaii. According to the tradition, only the captain and his sister reached the shore in safety. From their kneeling on the beach and remaining a long time in that posture, the place was called Kulou (to stoop, to bow,) as it is unto this day.”  (Alexander 1892)

“These strangers intermarried with the Hawaiians, and were the progenitors of certain well known families of chiefs, as for instance, that of Kaikioewa, former Governor of Kauai.“  (Alexander 1892)

Jarves expanded on the story, “In the reign of Kealiiokaloa, son of Umi, thirteen generations of kings before Cook’s arrival … a vessel, called by the natives Konaliloha, arrived at Pale, Keei, on the south side of Kealakeakua bay, Hawaii.”

“The spot where this took place, is known at the present day, by the appellation of Kulou, to bow down. The shipwrecked strangers were hospitably received, invited to the dwellings of the natives, and food placed before them.”  (Jarves 1843)

Gaetano and Mapping of the Islas de Mesa (1555 AD)

“Old Spanish charts and a 1613 AD Dutch globe suggest that explorers from Spain had sighted Hawaiʻi long before Captain Cook.  When Cook arrived in 1778, galleons laden with silver from the mines of Mexico and South America had been passing south of Hawaiʻi for two centuries on annual round trip voyages of 17,000 miles between Acapulco and Manila.”  (Kane)

“It seems to be almost certain that one Juan Gaetano, a Spanish navigator, saw Hawaii in 1555 AD. A group of islands, the largest of which was called La Mesa, was laid down in the old Spanish charts in the same latitude as the Hawaiian Islands, but 10 degrees too far east.”  (Hawaiʻi Department of Foreign Affairs, 1896)

“There are undoubted proofs of the discovery of the Hawaiian Islands by the Spaniard, Juan Gaetano. This is the first known record of the islands among the civilised nations.”  (Westervelt 1923)

La Perouse noted, when he briefly visited the Islands (1786,) “In the charts, at the foot of this archipelago, might be written: ‘Sandwich Islands, surveyed in 1778 by Captain Cook, who named them, anciently discovered by the Spanish navigators.’”  (La Perouse, Fornander)

“By all the documents that have been examined, it is demonstrated that the discovery dates from the year 1555 and that the discoverer was Juan Gaetano or Gaytan.”

“The principal proof is an old manuscript chart, registered in these archives as anonymous, and in which the Sandwich Islands are laid down under that name, but which also contains a note declaring that he called them Islas de Mesa”.  (Spanish Colonial Office letter to the Governor of the Philippines, The Friend May 1927)

“(H)e called them “Islas de Mesa” (Table Islands.) There are besides, other islands, situated in the same latitude, but 10° further east, and respectively named “La Mesa” (the table), “La Desgraciado” (the unfortunate), “Olloa,” and “Los Monges” (the Monks.)” 

Gaetano passed through the northern part of the Pacific and discovered large islands which he marked upon a chart as “Los Majos.” One of the islands was named “The Unfortunate.” Three other smaller islands were called “The Monks.”  (Westervelt 1923)

In 1743, English captain George Anson set sail for the Pacific to attack Spanish galleons (English and Spain were at war at the time.)  Overcoming the ‘Nuestra Senora de Covadonga,’ he found a “chart of all the ocean between the Philippines and the coasts of Mexico.”

A cluster of islands were noted in mid-ocean; the island La Mesa is on the same latitude of the Island of Hawaiʻi and its southern contour resembles the southern coastline of Hawaiʻi; however, they are noted east of their actual location.  (Kane)

How could the Islands be mis-mapped to the east? … Until 1744 and the development of the chronometer, determining longitude was an historic problem for navigators.  Longitude (East-West) was estimated by distances a ship covered within various periods of time, estimated by the ship’s speed during each period.  (Kane)

Ship speed was measured with a block of wood attached to a line with knots tied at intervals.  The ‘log’ was cast from the sterns and the number of ‘knots’ run out during a certain time interval enabled the navigator to calculate his speed.  However, this method doesn’t address the west-bound ocean current that would effectively place a position east of its true position.  (Kane)

For more information on this, click the link:

Click to access Who-Came-Next.pdf

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by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Pearl Lochs

The island of Oʻahu is divided into 6 moku (districts), consisting of: ‘Ewa, Kona, Koʻolauloa, Koʻolaupoko, Waialua and Waiʻanae. These moku were further divided into 86 ahupua‘a (land divisions within a moku.)

‘Ewa was divided into 12-ahupua‘a, consisting of (from east to west): Hālawa, ‘Aiea, Kalauao, Waimalu, Waiau, Waimano, Mānana, Waiʻawa, Waipi‘o, Waikele, Hōʻaeʻae and Honouliuli.

‘Ewa was at one time the political center for O‘ahu chiefs. This was probably due to its abundant resources that supported the households of the chiefs, particularly the many fishponds. (Cultural Surveys) ʻEwa was the second most productive taro cultivation area on Oʻahu (just behind Waikīkī.)  (Laimana)

The salient feature of ‘Ewa, and perhaps its most notable point of difference, is its spacious coastal plain, surrounding the deep bays (“lochs”) of Pearl Harbor, which are actually the drowned seaward valleys of ‘Ewa’s main streams, Waikele and VVaipi’o.

The Hawaiian name for Pearl Harbor was Ke-awa-lau-o-Pu‘uloa, The-many (lau)-harbors (awa)-of-Pu‘uloa. Pu‘uloa was the rounded area projecting into the sea at the long narrow entrance of the harbor.  Another and more poetic name was Awawa-lei, Garland (lei)-of-harbors.

The English name ‘Pearl’ was given to it because of the prevalence of pearl oysters (pipi) in the deep harbor waters.  (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

In Hawaiian traditions, Pu‘uloa (Pearl Harbor) consists of three distinct awalau, or lochs, including Kaihuopala‘ai (West Loch), Wai‘awa (Middle Loch) and Komoawa (East Loch).  (Nohopapa, KSBE)  For some time, Pearl Harbor was also known as Pearl Lochs and Pearl River.

These bays offered the most favorable locality in all the Hawaiian Islands for the building of fishponds and fish traps into which deep-sea fish came on the inflow of tidal waters. (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

In Hawaiian traditions, Pu‘uloa (Pearl Harbor) consists of three distinct awalau, or lochs, including Kaihuopala‘ai (West Loch), Wai‘awa (Middle Loch) and Komoawa (East Loch).  (Nohopapa, KSBE) 

‘Loch’ is a Scottish and/or Irish term that refers to a lake or bay that is nearly landlocked. So, when and why did the term ‘loch’ come in as names these awalau?

Let’s look back …

Liholiho was the son of Kamehameha I.  Upon his father’s death Liholiho became Kamehameha II. Liholiho’s reign was also noted for his efforts to ensure the lasting independence of the Hawaiian kingdom.

In 1823, Liholiho and his favorite wife, Kamāmalu, sailed to England to meet with King George IV, the first Ali‘i to travel to England.  King George IV scheduled a meeting for June 21, but it had to be delayed; Liholiho and Kamāmalu became ill.  The Hawaiian court had caught measles, to which they had no immunity.

It is believed they probably contracted the disease on their visit to the Royal Military Asylum (now the Duke of York’s Royal Military School).

Virtually the entire royal party developed measles within weeks of arrival, 7 to 10 days after visiting the Royal Military Asylum housing hundreds of soldiers’ children. On the 8th of July the Queen died, a few days later, King Liholiho died.  His reign was approximately 5-years.

In 1824, Great Britain sent the bodies of Kamehameha II and his Queen back to Hawai‘i on the HMS Blonde, under the command of Lord Byron.

The British Government took advantage of this opportunity to acquire more detailed information concerning the islands; and to that end, included in the personnel of the ship a party of scientists.

Among these was a Lieut. Charles Malden, a surveyor, who during the stay of the ship, made a comprehensive and extensive survey of several harbors and roadsteads (offshore ship mooring areas).

One of these surveys was a fairly complete charting of the whole of Pearl Harbor, with soundings taken throughout the entrance channel and the three main lochs. The chart resulting from this survey was printed in 1841 by the British Hydrographic Office. (Navy)

Today, that map is also identified as Registered Map #437, Honolulu Harbor, South Coast of O‘ahu. (A copy of it is included in the album associated with this post.) It seems others replicated the names of the lochs of that 1825 map in what we now refer to as Pearl Harbor.

The answer to the previous question of when and why the awalau were called ‘lochs’ comes from the Diary of James Macrae, who was aboard the Blonde and sailed with Malden.  Macrae wrote,

“Pearl River is about seven miles west of Hanarura, and is improperly called a river, being rather inlets from the sea, branching off in different directions.  There are three chief branches, named by the surveyors, the East, Middle and West Lochs.” (Macrae)

While we are familiar with the East, Middle and West Lochs, there were other areas within Pearl Harbor that were also referred to as lochs: Southeast Loch, West Loch Branch and, later, Magazine Loch, Quarry Loch and Merry Loch.

© 2024 Ho‘okuleana LLC

by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Empress of China

In the aftermath of the Revolutionary War, the new and nearly bankrupt US viewed the China trade as a way to settle war debts.

February 22, 1784, “the Empress of China cleared the wharf … launching America’s trade with China.” (Dolins)

She carried the hopes of a newly independent nation. Backers “of the Empress of China were all the signatories of the Independence agreement … This was a private enterprise but a national priority.” (Libby Chan Lai-pik)

With clearance from Bellona won
She spreads her wings to meet the Sun,
Those golden regions to explore
Where George forbade to sail before.

To countries placed in burning climes
And islands of remotest times
She now her eager course explores.
And soon shall greet Chinesian shores.

From thence their fragrant teas to bring
Without the leave of Britain’s king;
And Porcelain ware, enchased in gold.
The product of that finer mould.
(A Poem about the Empress of China, Philip Freneau)

Originally fitted as a privateer (privately owned armed vessel commissioned to attack enemy ships, usually vessels of commerce) and refitted as a trading ship, the Empress of China was the first American merchant ship to sail for China; the three-masted sailing vessel sailed from New York harbor on February 22, 1784 (George Washington’s birthday).

This was less than a year after the Treaty of Paris was signed (September 3, 1783 – ending the American Revolutionary War), and several years before George Washington took office as America’s first president on April 30, 1789.

It was a private venture that had national overtures. And marked the historical beginning of ties between China and the United States, and the assertion of the United States’ power as a sovereign nation.  (Schimdt)

The Empress of China also carried 30-tons of ginseng and other trading goods. Ginseng was the most important herb of the Chinese.

In the 18th century ginseng was also popular in America.  It is estimated that American colonists discovered it in the mid-1700s in New England.

“The history of human interaction with ginseng lurks in the language of the land … on the north-facing, ‘wet’ sides of depressions”. Look at a detailed map of almost any portion around the Colonies and ginseng is registered somewhere, often in association with the deeper, moister places, named ‘Hollows’. (LOC)

After trading, the Empress of China arrived in New York, May 11, 1785.

She carried 800 chests of tea, 20,000 pairs of nankeen trousers and a huge quantity of porcelain.

Stores up and down the East Coast sold her cargo. The voyage earned a 25% return on investment – enough to spawn a new era of commerce with China.

The Americans learned how to make real money in the China trade: sale of Chinese goods to Americans.

John Jay, the US foreign minister, shared the success with Congress.

Congress responded with ‘a peculiar satisfaction in the successful issue of this first effort of the citizens of America to establish a direct trade with China.’

The Empress of China proved that trade with China could enrich backers, funnel customs duties into the national treasury and make the US a competitor on the world stage. (NY Historical Society)

Post-Revolutionary direct trade with Asian countries allowed Americans to trade for their own luxuries. Americans would ship goods such as ginseng (used for medicinal and aphrodisiac purposes), tobacco, pitch, tar, turpentine, furs, and silver to China and East India.

Export of commodities such as ginseng and tobacco was acceptable, even necessary, according to Jeffersonian political doctrine, in order to expand the agricultural basis of the new nation.

In return, traders would receive tea, cotton nankeen cloth, silk, porcelain (which was so inexpensive in China that it was often shipped as ballast), pepper, and Chinese cinnamon. (Weyler)

For the next 60 years, the China trade would make New England merchants very, very wealthy.  (NE Historical Society)

Other US merchants were quick to see the value of the China trade. At first, however, they flooded the Chinese market with ginseng. Chinese demand for the root dropped, and so did its price.

But the Chinese did want sea-otter pelts, which Yankees traded from Indians in the American Northwest. Sandalwood, found in the Sandwich Islands (Hawai‘i), also brought a high price from Chinese merchants. (Monroe Columbia University)

Click the following links to a general summary about the Empress of China:

Click to access Empress-of-China.pdf

Click to access Empress-of-China-SAR-RT.pdf

© 2024 Ho‘okuleana LLC