Hawaii | Page 2 | Images of Old Hawaiʻi

September 25, 2026 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

‘For Manly Men’

“‘Here’s to another year and years and years of steady nerves, clear brains and vigorous health.’”

“Duncan is a body-builder and a good one. There are others in town all good ones. The town cannot have too many of them.” (Hawaiian Star, January 27, 1912) (Advertisements noted that Duncan’s Gym was for ‘Manly Men.’)

“‘If we can have a boy for two years, say from the age of twelve to fourteen,’ said Duncan, ‘we can make a well rounded youngster of him, and in addition to that the spirit of, true sportsmanship and love of the gym work for the work’s sake is so ingrained in him that he will never stop it.’”

“We don’t aim to turn out prizefighters, but we do aim to put a person in such shape that medicines and physicians will he unknown to him for a long time to come.” (Evening Bulletin, March 1, 1911)

“Duncan’s gymnasium isn’t half big enough to accommodate the youngsters who are anxious to join in the classes, but although the space is limited the boys take delight in playing the games that will make them stronger and fairer in every way.”

“A visit to the gymnasium will show hundreds of devices that have been built to improve the bodies of the youngsters, and the older people as well. Mr. Duncan has gone to much trouble in securing wheels and hundred s of implements of exercise that make for the building up or the youth.” (Star-Bulletin, May 3, 1916)

“At the recent Indoor meet held at the gymnasium a number of the parents looked on, and watched what the boys had accomplished during the class periods.”

“Many of the youngsters had gone into the classes with little of what one might call ‘pep,’ but the feats performed during the meet was enough to convince the mothers and fathers that the boy had been ‘learning the game.’”

“The meet showed the boys how to win; and how to take defeat.”

“The ‘thinking’ races were a big feature of the afternoon’s entertainment, and the race was not always to the swiftest.”

“A number of incidents happened during the afternoon that proved that the boys had teen taught to ‘play fair.’ One youngster with rosy cheeks who had been making a success won in a race, and after he had crossed the tape acknowledged to the referee that he had missed one of the relay pins.”

“In speaking of this incident afterwards Mr. Duncan said: ‘Things of that kind do the boy more good than a medal won, and I always try to encourage the boys to play fair at any cost.’”

“‘I wish that I had more room so I could cater to more of the boys and give them more room for the accomplishment of athletic features.’”

“Each afternoon many of the businessmen of the city spend an hour or so at the gymnasium, and the universal opinion is that it is more than worth the time spent.”

“Among the men of the city are many who have taken a deep interest in the youngsters, and at the recent track meet John Guild and Fred Wichman donated cups to the boys who competed in the various events.” (Star-Bulletin, May 3, 1916)

“Because of the great success made by GM Duncan in building up the weakling, there is much interest in his competition this afternoon. Mr. Duncan has divided the boys into two groups, the Reds and the Blues, and there is certain to be a number of events stated.”

“Fred Wichman said, ‘Mr. Duncan is doing a great work in developing the youngsters in every way, and he richly deserves credit for the manner in which he has helped the boys.’ Many of the leading businessmen of the city patronize the gymnasium and all join in singing praises for the manner in which the exercises are handled.”

“‘Mr. Duncan is doing a great work for the youngsters and for the older men as well. I use the gymnasium every day and find that it builds you up, and you can see that it has made the youngsters stronger. I would like to see a larger building where more boys could receive benefits from the exercise.’” (Guy Macfarlane) (Honolulu Star Bulletin, April 25, 1918)

September 24, 2026 by Peter T Young 2 Comments

Hawaiian Common Law

The first Hawaiʻi Supreme Court case to discuss “the rights common people to go to the mountains, and the seas attached to their own particular land exclusively” in the 1850 Kuleana Act was Oni v Meek (1858.)

Oni, a tenant of the ahupua’a of Honouliuli, O’ahu, filed suit against John Meek, who had a lease over the entire ahupuaʻa. Oni brought suit when some of his horses, which had been pastured on Meek’s land, were impounded and sold. Oni claimed that he had a right to pasture his horses (by custom and by language in the Kuleana Act.)

The Hawai’i Supreme Court rejected both arguments. For over a hundred years, the Oni v Meek case appeared to foreclose claims based on custom. (MacKenzie)

In 1892 the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom and Queen Liliʻuokalani passed a law that recognized Hawaiian usage as part of the common law of the Kingdom, together with the common law of England.

An act on November 25, 1892, Act to Reorganize the Judiciary Department, ch. LVII, § 5, 1892 Laws of Her Majesty Liliuokalani, Queen of the Hawaiian Islands, provided for exceptions to the English common law that were “established by Hawaiian national usage.”

This law, which is today known as Section 1-1 of the Hawaiʻi Revised Statutes (HRS,) provided the basis for the rights of the makaʻāinana (common people) beyond the rights reserved under the Kuleana Act, so as to include whatever was broadly customary as Hawaiian usage prior to 1892. (McGregor & MacKenzie)

HRS §1-1 Common law of the State; exceptions, states, “The common law of England, as ascertained by English and American decisions, is declared to be the common law of the State of Hawaii in all cases, except …”

“… as otherwise expressly provided by the Constitution or laws of the United States, or by the laws of the State, or fixed by Hawaiian judicial precedent, or established by Hawaiian usage; provided that no person shall be subject to criminal proceedings except as provided by the written laws of the United States or of the State. (Hawaiʻi Revised Statutes)

Effective January 1, 1893 and continuing today, common law was adopted “except as otherwise provided … or fixed by Hawaiian judicial precedent, or established by Hawaiian usage….” (HRS Case Notes)

In 1978, the Hawaiʻi State Constitution was amended to specifically recognize traditional and customary Hawaiian practices by adopting Article XII, Section 7:

“The State reaffirms and shall protect all rights, customarily and traditionally exercised for subsistence, cultural and religious purposes and possessed by ahupua’a tenants who are descendants of native Hawaiians who inhabited the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778, subject to the right of the State to regulate such rights.”

In 1995, the Hawaiʻi Supreme Court, explained in the Public Access Shoreline Hawaii (PASH) case that “Oni merely rejected one particular claim based upon an apparently non-traditional practice that had not achieved customary status in the area where the right was asserted.” (MacKenzie)

The PASH Court stressed that “the precise nature and scope of the rights retained by (HRS) § 1-1 … depend upon the particular circumstances of each case”.

The Court set out a test for the doctrine of custom, requiring that a custom be consistent when measured against other customs; a practice be certain in an objective sense, “(A) particular custom is certain if it is objectively defined and applied; certainty is not subjectively determined”; and a traditional use be exercised in a reasonable manner.

The PASH Court also clarified that “those persons who are ‘descendants of native Hawaiians who inhabited the islands prior to 1778,’ and who assert otherwise valid customary and traditional Hawaiian rights under HRS 1-1, are entitled to protection regardless of their blood quantum.” (MacKenzie)

In the ‘Kapili’ case (dealing with entering undeveloped lands to gather, without unnecessarily disturbing the surrounding environment, natural products necessary for certain traditional native Hawaiian practices) the Hawaiʻi Supreme Court noted:

“The statutory exception to the common law is thus akin to the English doctrine of custom whereby practices and privileges unique to particular districts continued to apply to residents of those districts in contravention of the common law.”

“This, however, is not to say that we find that all the requisite elements of the doctrine of custom were necessarily incorporated in § 1-1. Rather, we believe that the retention of a Hawaiian tradition should in each case be determined by balancing the respective interests and harm once it is established that the application of the custom has continued in a particular area.” (Supreme Court, Kapili)

Related to this, in the Pele Defense Fund case, it was determined that, “The nature and scope of the rights reserved to hoaʻāina (tenants) by custom and usage are to be defined according to the values, traditions and customs associated with a particular area as transmitted from one generation to the next in the conduct of subsistence, cultural, and religious activities.”

That case also found that residency of a particular ahupuaʻa was not required for gather, noting, “Unlike other areas in Hawaii, Hawaiians historically crossed ahupua`a boundaries in the Puna district. …”

“…The hunting and gathering patterns in the Puna district are unique because they are influenced, to a large extent, by an active volcano, Kilauea. It can be reasonably inferred that volcanic eruptions in the Puna area force hunters and gatherers to change areas to find plants and animals for subsistence purposes.” (Circuit Court, PDF)

The Pele Defense Fund decision extended rights to non-Hawaiians, noting, “Accordingly, non-Hawaiians could have the same right as Hawaiians, irrespective of Article XII, § 7 if they could prove that their rights were based on custom and usage.”

“The Pele Defense Fund decision concluded with “a permanent injunction against excluding the following persons from entering the undeveloped portions of the land and using the developed portion for reasonable access to the undeveloped portions, to perform customarily and traditionally exercised subsistence and cultural practices:”

“(a) Hawaiian subsistence or cultural practitioners who are descendants of the inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778; (b) Person or persons accompanying Hawaiian subsistence or cultural practitioners described in (a); or (c) Persons related by blood, marriage or adoption to Hawaiian subsistence or cultural practitioners described in (a).”

Within the same Hawaii Revised Statues is another important law (§5-7.5) ‘Aloha Spirit’.

‘Aloha Spirit’ is the coordination of mind and heart within each person. It brings each person to the self. Each person must think and emote good feelings to others. In the contemplation and presence of the life force, “Aloha”, the following unuhi laula loa may be used:
‘Akahai,’ kindness to be expressed with tenderness;
‘Lokahi,’ unity, to be expressed with harmony;
‘Oluolu,’ agreeable, to be expressed with pleasantness;
‘Haahaa,’ humility, to be expressed with modesty;
‘Ahonui,’ patience, to be expressed with perseverance.

‘Aloha’ is more than a word of greeting or farewell or a salutation. ‘Aloha’ means mutual regard and affection and extends warmth in caring with no obligation in return.

‘Aloha’ is the essence of relationships in which each person is important to every other person for collective existence. ‘Aloha’ means to hear what is not said, to see what cannot be seen and to know the unknowable.

Aloha, it’s the law.

September 20, 2026 by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Papa Koa Lumber Company

“The marketing of a quantity of koa lumber will prove a noteworthy event in the history of our exports, it is to be regretted that so little is known on the mainland of the commercial woods of these islands.”

“A complete collection of Hawaiian economic woods, is greatly to be desired. In many cases the beauty of their texture is only equalled by their possibilities of utility.”

“Not only are hard woods of beautiful grain, capable of retaining a splendid polish, well represented in Hawaii, but also others whose peculiar properties would make them valuable tor special purposes. Notable among the latter is the wood of the wili-wili tree, whose extreme lightness will no doubt some day find an economic application.”

The ‘ōhi‘a forms the major part of the forest in South Kona and in many places the trees attain good height and fairly large diameter. The ‘ōhia forest extends up to an elevation of about 4,000 feet.

“Above that the character of the forest changes, the ‘ōhi‘a being replaced by koa in fairly pure stand, with less undergrowth. The koa occurs in groves more or less connected, rather than as a dense forest cover.”

The upper part is much rougher than that lower down, but nevertheless there are many pockets and little islands of good soil in the lava in which the koa develops well and reaches good size. Where the soil is scant the trees are short and spreading. (Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturalist, 1905)

Between 1906 and 1919, Papa Koa Lumber Company, owned by Cristel Bolte, was the major supplier of koa lumber for Hawai‘i and the US. (Jenkins)

Bolte was a German national who became a naturalized Hawaiian subject. He was a merchant in the corporation of Grinbanm & Co. and was connected with the Planters’ Labor and Supply Association and a sugar shareholder; “There is hardly any person of property in this country who is not an owner of some sugar stocks.”

Bolte leased about 600-acres of koa forest lands in Papa, South Kona, and in 1906 he negotiated a contract to supply koa logs to the American-Hawaiian Mahogany Company in Petaluma, California. He shipped 30,000 feet of unsawed logs to the American-Hawaiian Mahogany Company in the first year of operation.

In 1909, Bolte purchased sawmill equipment on the mainland and entered into a partnership with EH Cant to harvest ‘ōhi‘a in Pahoa. Cant and Bolte, Ltd. had picked up part of the Santa Fe Railroad contract that the Hawaiian Mahogany Lumber Company had. but lost.

By 1914, the once large market for ‘ōhi‘a in the US had all but disappeared and by 1915 Bolte consolidated his lumber business back at Papa, South Kona, now on approximately 1,200 acres.

He added a band saw and forty-two-inch circular saw used for sawing the logs. There was also a machine shop, a complete woodworking shop, a manager’s home, and six to ten workers’ cottages on the site. It was a modern sawmill, employing whatever machinery was practical in the rugged, steep terrain.

Two old lumber wagons with ‘wood wheels’ were also used for hauling lumber down to the Ho‘opuloa Village landing for shipment

Transporting the lumber to the shipping point was as difficult and costly as it had been 100 years earlier. The tortuous roads over the rugged lava were essentially wagon trails, and the lumber vehicles were in constant need of repair.

The company was a major supplier of koa lumber to Honolulu’s largest koa furniture manufacturer, Fong Inn Company. The Papa Koa Lumber Company was in fact the main source of all commercial koa lumber during that time.

Bolte died in April 1919 at the age sixty-five; two of his sons, Ernest and Fred, continued the business as Bolte Brothers Sawmills. In September 1919, only five months after Bolte’s death, Mauna Loa volcano erupted, destroying much of the company’s forest lands, but stopped short of the sawmill.

The lava continued around and past the mill, destroying more forest lands on its way to the sea. The Bolte Brothers continued for two more years, until May 1921 when the Security Trust Company foreclosed on a loan made the year before.

In September, the sawmill and land were sold to neighboring landowner CQ Yee Hop, who also took the name of the defunct Hawaiian Mahogany Lumber Company. The new company then became the major supplier of koa lumber in the territory. (Lots of information here is from Jenkins, Daughters of Hawaii.)

September 18, 2026 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

‘A Swarm of B’s Has Come’

“A family meeting of seven brothers was held at our late Thanksgiving, and the occurrence was so peculiar and uncommon in the history of the town, that some of the citizens have expressed desire that it should be made public”.

“The ancestors of these men, both on the father and the mother’s side, immigrated from England. Joseph Bingham, their grand-sire, was born at Norwich, Connecticut where he lived to raise a family of sons and daughters: and he remained there until his children arrived to years of maturity.”

“He was a Capt. Lieutenant in a company of Provincials, as they were then called, during the French War, about the year 1756. He was a firm friend of liberty, and a determined opposer to all tyranny and oppression.”

“Soon after the close of the French from Norwich, Conn. to Charlemont, Jeremiah and Calvin came with him. Here they resided until a short time before the commencement of the Revolution.”

“About this time a few families had located themselves in this town and Jeremiah and Calvin Bingham came across the mountain and selected a farm. They soon removed with their agent father and mother, and settled upon their farm in North Bennington, and the frame of their dwelling house is the same which is now occupied by Dea. Graves.”

“When the Battle of Bunker Hill was fought, they and many of their neighbors, and others in this town, heard the roar of cannon from that battlefield.”

“When Gen. Burgoyne in August, 1777 sent Col. Baum to Bennington with a strong force of Hessians and Indians to procur provisions etc., Jeremiah and Calvin Bingham united with their fellow townsmen and others to oppose the progress of Col. Baum.”

“This officer was effectively routed and overwhelmed with the Green Mountain Boys met him ‘upon the high places of the field’, August 16, 1777.”

He went, with many others, who were aged and infirm, to Bennington Center, and while they were collected there, he proposed that while the Battle was raging they should lift up their voices and their hearts in fervent prayer to the God of Battle …”

“… that He would bless their sons, brothers and friends, who were in the Battle, fighting for their homes and for liberty; and that He would permit them to return again, and peacefully enjoy their homes.”

“After the close of the War, Jeremiah, the elder of the two brothers, removed to Cornwall, Addison County, Vermont where he trained a family of sons and daughters; and was loved and honored by his fellow citizens, to the end of his days, for his piety and every manly virtue. He lived to be almost 100 years old.”

“Calvin, the younger, remained on the farm at North Bennington, and nourished and comforted his aged father and mother while they lived. There, on that farm, was born to him 7 sons and 5 daughters, who lived to arrive to years of maturity.”

“Asa, the first born son and child, was born in Sept. 1778. He is consequently 77 yrs. old. He lived with his father until he was of lawful age, and worked on the farm as he was able. He was married, and after a few months removed to Camillua, Onondaga County, New York.”

“In process of time, his farm was subdued, and he has been greatly prospered in pecuniary things. He has been honored many years also as an officer in a Christian Church.”

“Amos, the second son, lived and worked with his father on the farm several years. His health was not very good, and he thought he would make an effort to fit himself with some other calling. He taught school some, and fitted for college.”

“He entered Middlebury College and passed through the course of studies … He studied divinity with Rev. Dr. Burton of Thetford, Vt. and was licensed and ordained as Minister of the Gospel.”

“The oppresive system of slavery in Virginia he could no longer endure. He retired to the city of Philadelphia, where he has been employed to preach to prisoners, to alms houses, by the city authorities and by benevolent societies and individuals.”

“Calvin, the third son, lived and labored chiefly on the farm with his father until he was by law permitted to act for himself. He then left his native place, and took up a piece of wild land adjoining the farm of his eldest brother, about 9 miles from Syracuse.”

“While living on and subduing this land, he had some marvelous escapes from sudden death. Several of his children are living in Michigan, one of whom is now Governor of that State.”

“Luther, the fourth son, when he had lived nearly to mature years, commenced the study of medicine. He studied a part of the time, and practiced some with Dr. N. Swift of this town. He commenced medical practice for himself near Burlington , Otsego County, N.Y.”

“He afterwards located in Oaondaga County, near his older brothers; and followed his profession in connection with farming. He spent a few years there, and sold out and removed to Genesee County.”

“He purchased a farm near Batavia, where he still resides. He has for many years been distinguished for his opposition to the
system of American slavery.”

“Hiram, the fifth son, before he arrived to manhood was selected by his parents to remain with them to be their protector and
comforter during their reclining years.”

“About this time, however, he experienced a great change in his feelings, and notwithstanding his parents were depending on him, yet he felt it to be his duty to prepare for the work of the Gospel Ministry.”

“He soon commenced to fit himself for college. He entered and passed through a course of college studies at Middlebury where he graduated with honor to himself and to his instructors.”

“He soon entered the Theological Seminary at Andover, Massachusetts. He passed through a three-year course of study. He offered himself to the Board of Missions at Boston as a Missionary to the Sandwich Islands.”

“H. Bingham lived and preached on these Islands about 20 years when he found it necessary to return to his native land in consequence in illness of his wife. His wife and faithful helper did not remain very long in her native land, but wasted away by disease and soon rested from all her labors, cares and sorrows.”

“Her husband still lives, and at the present time is connected with a second wife and with her is engaged in teaching a boarding school for young ladies in New Haven, Connecticut. He also preaches occasionally as he has opportunity.”

“Stephen, the sixth son, lived and labored on the farm with his father until he was 21. He was requested by his parents to stay with them and take charge of the farm during their declining years. “

“This service he endeavored to perform; and probably he was instrumental in relieving them from many anxious cares, and in making them more happy and comfortable while they lived, though perhaps in their pecuniary point of view, at the expense of a rising family.”

“He has always lived and labored among his fellow citizens of this goodly town. At present he is entrusted with the superintendence of the common schools as he has been for several years past.”

“David, the seventh son, remained with his parents until by the statutes he was permitted to act for himself. Soon after this he went to Camillus, and commenced clearing a piece of land adjoining the farms of his older brothers.”

“He thought his health was not sufficient for that business, and he sold his land to his oldest brother, and commenced the study of medicine. He completed his medical studies at the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Fairfield, Herkimer County, New York and soon after entered into practice at Norway, in the same county.”

“(The) history of these seven brothers has it has been extended over a period of more than 50 years. During this long period they had not been permitted to meet all together at one time. Their lives had been mercifully and wonderfully preserved, by sea and land, through dangers and death on every side, until their united ages amounted to 484 years and 9 months. Average age, 69 years one month and 13 days.”

“And here, perhaps, the inquiry may be made, ‘can any reason be given why the lives of these men have been protracted through this long period? … They are all men of temporate and industrious habits, and no one of them ever contracted the habit of using tobacco in any of its forms, or indulged in the use of intoxicating liquors as a beverage.”

“Some of the older sons felt very anxious that a meeting should be held; and by correspondence, it was finally arranged that each one would make strenuous exertions to be in his native town on the 6th of December – Thanksgiving Day.”

“On that day, those who lived out of town, enjoyed the privilege of meeting with some of their old fellow townsmen, and others, in the Center Church, and with them were permitted to render Thanksgiving and praise to Him who rules upon the sea and land; who watches the fall of the sparrows, and who had sustained them through all their wonderings.”

“In the afternoon the seven were all at the house of their sister … and with her and another sister and some young friends, they sat down to a bountiful supper, prepared for the occasion while many of the transactions of their youthful days were vividly brought to their recollection.”

“The next day they rambled over the old farm where their youthful days had been spent. They tranversed the fields, the pastures, the meadows. They observed the trees, the rocks, the fence, the orchard, the locus and other trees around the house and then they came around the old well, which is 60 ft. deep.”

“The proprietor (Dea. Graves) observing them, came out, when one of them observed to him ‘a swarm of B’s has come.’”

“They were invited and welcomed into the old house where they first saw the light. This they had opportunity critically to examine and here, for a short time … the scenes of their youth were lived over afresh.”

“What feelings crowded in rapid succession upon the mind! The father and mother who taught their infant feet to walk and who guided their wayward youth! That aged grandfather and grandmother, who sat in the ‘the old arm chairs.’” (Vermont State Banner, Bennington, December 28, 1855)

September 15, 2026 by Peter T Young 2 Comments

Haui ka Lani

Lots of folks criticize the US for take-overs, wars and expansion.

Manifest Destiny was the widely held belief that American settlers were destined to expand throughout the continent. Journalist John L O’Sullivan wrote an article in 1839 and predicted a “divine destiny” for the United States …

“This is our high destiny, and in nature’s eternal, inevitable decree of cause and effect we must accomplish it. All this will be our future history, to establish on earth the moral dignity and salvation of man.”

After wars and negotiation, the US ran east to west across the continent.

Over the centuries, the Hawaiian Islands weren’t under single rule. Leadership sometimes covered portions of an island, sometimes covered a whole island or groups of islands. Island rulers, Aliʻi or Mōʻī, typically ascended to power through warfare and familial succession.

While criticizing the US and their mission to extend the “boundaries of freedom” to others by imparting their idealism and belief in democratic institutions to those who were capable of self-government (pbs,) some seem to romanticize and idealize the conquest of Hawaiian warrior chiefs over others.

Of particular note was the conquest, and killing of Hawaiians, by Hawaiians …

“Before the conquest of Kamehameha, the several islands were ruled by independent kings, who were frequently at war with each other, but more often with their own subjects. As one chief acquired sufficient strength, he disputed the title of the reigning prince.”

“If successful, his chance of permanent power was quite as precarious as that of his predecessor. In some instances the title established by force of arms remained in the same family for several generations, disturbed, however, by frequent rebellions … war being a chief occupation …” (Jarves)

Then, the prophecy chant “Haui ka Lani: Fallen is the Chief?,” composed by the prophet Keʻāulumoku, tells of the death of the Ka‘ū chief, Keōua, and the taking of the entire island of Hawai‘i by Kamehameha. (Pukui)

“After describing the horrors of the civil war then desolating the island, he concluded by predicting that Kamehameha would triumph over his enemies, and in the end be hailed as the greatest of Hawaiian conquerors.” (Kalākaua)

Many lines in the chant refer to events that had recently happened. These included the blow on Kamehameha’s head, which, years later, inspired the “Law of the Splintered Paddle;” Keōua’s killing some of Kamehameha’s men at Keʻei; the 1782 quarrel between Keōua and Keawemauhili the earlier meetings with the chief, Kīwala‘ō, and Kīwala‘ō’s death.

But when it comes to the death of Keōua, Keʻāulumoku unmistakably speaks of the future. Exactly what he said may have been altered in the handed-down spoken recitations, by changes in the Hawaiian language, and, certainly, by later translations.

The chant begins:
“Haui ka Lani, ka mauli au honua.”
“Fallen is the chief, overthrown is the whole kingdom.”

“Hina wale i ke ala kapapa, ke one.”
“Falling in the smooth road, on the sand.”

With Keōua dead, and his supporters captured or slain, Kamehameha became King of Hawaiʻi island, an event that according to the prophesy eventually led to the conquest and consolidation of the islands under the rule of Kamehameha I.

By the time of Cook’s arrival (1778,) Kamehameha had become a superb warrior who already carried the scars of a number of political and physical encounters. The young warrior Kamehameha was described as a tall, strong and physically fearless man who “moved in an aura of violence.” (NPS)

The impress of his mind remains with his crude and vigorous laws, and wherever he stepped is seen an imperishable track. He was so strong of limb that ordinary men were but children in his grasp, and in council the wisest yielded to his judgment. He seems to have been born a man and to have had no boyhood. (Kalākaua)

He was always sedate and thoughtful, and from his earliest years cared for no sport or pastime that was not manly. He had a harsh and rugged face, less given to smiles than frowns, but strongly marked with lines indicative of self-reliance and changeless purpose. (Kalākaua)

He was barbarous, unforgiving and merciless to his enemies, but just, sagacious and considerate in dealing with his subjects. He was more feared and admired than loved and respected; but his strength of arm and force of character well fitted him for the supreme chieftaincy of the group, and he accomplished what no one else could have done in his day. (Kalākaua)

“It is supposed that some six thousand of the followers of this chieftain (Kamehameha,) and twice that number of his opposers, fell in battle during his career, and by famine and distress occasioned by his wars and devastations from 1780 to 1796.” (Bingham)

“However the greatest loss of life according to early writers was not from the battles, but from the starvation of the vanquished and consequential sickness due to destruction of food sources and supplies – a recognized part of Hawaiian warfare.” (Bingham)

“Whether we contemplate the horrors or the glories of the rude warfare which wasted the nation, we are not to confine our views to the struggles of armed combatants, the wounds, the reproaches, and various evils inflicted on one another …”

“… but the burden of sustaining such armies deserves attention, and the indescribable misery of the unarmed and unresisting of the vanquished party or tribe, pursued and crushed, till all danger of further resistance disappeared, must not be forgotten.” (Bingham)

According to Manifest Destiny, the people of the US felt it was their mission to extend the “boundaries of freedom” to others by imparting their idealism and belief in democratic institutions to those who were capable of self-government. (pbs) After wars and negotiation, the US ran east to west across the continent.

According to a prophecy prior to his birth, Kamehameha would win wars and overthrow the whole kingdom; another prophecy suggested he would succeed in battle after constructing a special heiau. After wars and negotiation, Kamehameha gained power from east to west across the Island chain.

Again, while criticizing the US for expansion, some seem to romanticize and idealize the conquest of Hawaiian chiefs (killing Hawaiians) for their conquest and expansion across the Islands.