Place Names | Page 142 | Images of Old Hawaiʻi

February 13, 2016 by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Matsumoto Shave Ice

It is referred to in different ways, depending on where you are from … in Hilo it’s Ice Shave; lots of folks outside the Islands call it Sno-Balls, SnoCones (or Snow Cones) or even Shaved Ice … most, here, call it Shave Ice.

Shave ice exists all over the world today and is known as Gola Gunda in Pakistan, Juski in India, Ice Kachang in Malasia & Singapore where it is served with red beans and other fruits, Raspa, Raspado, or Raspadillo in Mexico and Peru (Raspar means “scrape” in Spanish.) (Stever)

In 1956, five years after Matsumoto Grocery Store first opened their doors to the public, a family friend suggested that the store sell cones of shave ice to help make up for slow business.

Mamoru and Helen soon purchased a hand-crank shave ice machine from Japan, attached an electric motor and started making shave ice cones at a nickel a piece. (Nemoto)

Whoa … we are already getting ahead of ourselves. Let’s look back …

Born in Hawaiʻi, Mamoru Matsumoto’s family returned to Hiroshima-ken when he was a toddler, and they struggled to survive. He worked as an apprentice at a sake factory and other odd jobs, but the income was insufficient.

Through friends and relatives he met his wife, Helen Momoyo Ogi, and they were married at the Haleiwa Jodo Mission. Mamoru worked long hours while Helen became a seamstress. They dreamed of opening their own business and purchasing a home for his family in Japan and for themselves.

Mr Kazuo Tanaka gave them the opportunity to open their own grocery store, M. Matsumoto Store Inc (founded February 13, 1951) in the previous Tanaka Store in Haleiwa. (Matsumoto)

Although grateful for the spot they now call home today, they “struggled” at first and had to work “really hard” in order for the family business to stay afloat. (Nemoto)

At first, Mamoru peddled his wares on a bicycle, until he was able to afford a panel truck. He went from camp to camp, taking orders and delivering the goods, while Helen manned the store and did some sewing. (Matsumoto)

“My dad had a panel truck,” says the second-generation Matsumoto. “He used to go around the community trying to sell canned goods in the back.” (Nemoto)

In 1956, the family expanded the business to include the frozen treat that’s known as kakigori (shave ice) in its place of origin, Japan. “The Japanese immigrants moved here with ice shavers. The equipment works like a wood planer.” (Washington Post)

This was before the present big wave surfing on the North Shore. Until the 1930s, modern surfing in Hawaiʻi was focused at Waikīkī; there the waves were smaller.

Then, in 1937, Wally Froiseth and John Kelly, reportedly on a school trip witnessed the large break at Mākaha and later surfed its waves. They were later joined by George Downing and others.

Riding at an angle to the wave, rather than the straight to shore technique, on the new “hot curl” board, with narrower tails and V-hulled boards, allowed them to ride in a sharper angle than anyone else.

Mākaha became the birthplace of big wave surfing. Even before Oʻahu’s North Shore, Mākaha was ‘the’ place for surfing – especially big-wave surfing.

But North Shore surfing caught on, so did the requisite stop at Matsumoto’s for shave ice.

When son Stanley Matsumoto took over in 1976, he bumped the canned goods to make space for the growing shave ice (and Matsumoto T-shirt) enterprise, which had been garnering attention from the Japanese media and visiting celebrities from both sides of the Pacific. (Washington Post)

In the busy summer season, the shop makes 1,000 ices a day; when school’s in session, the number drops to 500. “My father would be so happy with how the store has gotten so big,” said Matsumoto, whose father died in 1994 at age 85. (Washington Post)

“If they were alive right now they would be so happy to see how the store is today,” Matsumoto says. “They would be so proud to see everyone come to the store and have a nice time.” (Nemoto)

Shave ice is a local specialty found throughout the islands, but Matsumoto’s stands out for being the oldest continuously run operation on Oahu, going back more than half a century. (Washington Post)

Kamehameha Schools recent redeveloped the area. In all, the 28,000-square-foot retail complex spans a 0.1-mile section of Kamehameha Highway between Mahaulu Lane and Kewalo Lane.

Retailers now open for business include Matsumoto Shave Ice, Whaler’s General Store, Haleiwa Fruit Stand, Clark Little Gallery, Global Creations, Greenroom Hawaii, Guava Shop, Island Vintage Coffee, Kahala Sportswear, Mahina, Mailikukahi Hale Kamehameha Schools North Shore Information Center, Malibu Shirts, Spam Hawaii, Splash! Hawaii, T&C Surf and Teddy’s Bigger Burgers. (PBN)

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Matsumoto Shave Ice

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Matsumoto Shave Ice

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Haleiwa redevelopment-ksbe

Tanaka Store-before Matsumoto

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January 30, 2016 by Peter T Young 4 Comments

ʻAilāʻau

The longest recorded eruption at Kilauea, arguably, was the ʻAilāʻau eruption and lava flow in the 15th century, which may be memorialized in the Pele-Hiʻiaka chant. It was the largest in Hawaiʻi in more than 1,000-years.

The flow was named after ʻAilāʻau was known and feared by all the people. ʻAi means the “one who eats or devours.” Lāʻau means “tree” or a “forest.”

ʻAilāʻau was, therefore, the forest eating (destroying) fire-god. Time and again he laid the districts of South Hawaii desolate by the lava he poured out from his fire-pits. (He was the fire god before Pele arrived at Hawaiʻi Island.)

He was the god of the insatiable appetite; the continual eater of trees, whose path through forests was covered with black smoke fragrant with burning wood, and sometimes burdened with the smell of human flesh charred into cinders in the lava flow.

ʻAilāʻau seemed to be destructive and was so named by the people, but his fires were a part of the forces of creation. He built up the islands for future life. The flowing lava made land. Over time, the lava disintegrates and makes earth deposits and soil. When the rain falls, fruitful fields form and people settled there.

ʻAilāʻau still poured out his fire. It spread over the fertile fields, and the people feared him as the destroyer giving no thought to the final good.

He lived, the legends say, for a long time in a very ancient part of Kilauea, on the large island of Hawaii, now separated by a narrow ledge from the great crater and called Kilauea Iki (Little Kilauea).

The ʻAilāʻau eruption took place from a vent area just east of Kilauea Iki. The eruption built a broad shield. The eastern part of Kilauea Iki Crater slices through part of the shield, and red cinder and lava flows near the center of the shield can be seen on the northeastern wall of the crater.

The eruption probably lasted about 60 years, ending around 1470 (based on evaluation of radiocarbon data for 17 samples of lava flows produced by the ʻAilāʻau shield – from charcoal created when lava burns vegetation.) The ages obtained for the 17 samples were averaged and examined statistically to arrive at the final results.

The radiocarbon data are supported by the magnetic declination and inclination of the lava flows, frozen into the flows when they cooled. This study found that these “paleomagnetic directions” are consistent with what was expected for the 15th century.

Such a long eruption naturally produced a large volume of lava, estimated to be about 5.2 cubic kilometers (1.25 cubic miles) after accounting for the bubbles in the lava. The rate of eruption is about the same as that for other long-lasting eruptions at Kilauea.

This large volume of lava covered a huge area, about 166 square miles (over 106,000-acres) – larger than the Island of Lānaʻi. From the summit of the ʻAilāʻau shield, pāhoehoe lava flowed 25-miles northeastward, making it all the way to the coast.

Lava covered all, or most, of what are now Mauna Loa Estates, Royal Hawaiian Estates, Hawaiian Orchid Island Estates, Fern Forest Vacation Estates, Eden Rock Estates, Crescent Acres, Hawaiian Acres, Orchid Land Estates, ʻAinaloa, Hawaiian Paradise Park and Hawaiian Beaches. (USGS)

After a time, ʻAilāʻau left these pit craters and went into the great crater and was said to be living there when Pele came to the seashore far below.

When Pele came to the island Hawaiʻi, she first stopped at a place called Keahialaka in the district of Puna. From this place she began her inland journey toward the mountains. As she passed on her way there grew within her an intense desire to go at once and see ʻAilāʻau, the god to whom Kilauea belonged, and find a resting-place with him as the end of her journey.

She came up, but ʻAilāʻau was not in his house – he had made himself thoroughly lost. He had vanished because he knew that this one coming toward him was Pele. He had seen her toiling down by the sea at Keahialaka. Trembling dread and heavy fear overpowered him.

He ran away and was entirely lost. When he came to that pit she laid out the plan for her abiding home, beginning at once to dig up the foundations. She dug day and night and found that this place fulfilled all her desires. Therefore, she fastened herself tight to Hawaii for all time.

These are the words in which the legend disposes of this ancient god of volcanic fires. He disappears from Hawaiian thought and Pele from a foreign land finds a satisfactory crater in which her spirit power can always dig up everlastingly overflowing fountains of raging lava. (Westervelt)

The ʻAilāʻau flow was such a vast outpouring changed the landscape of much of Puna. It must have had an important impact on local residents, and as such it may well be described in the Pele-Hiʻiaka chant.

Hiʻiaka, late on returning to Kilauea from Kauaʻi with Lohiau, sees that Pele has broken her promise and set afire Hiʻiaka’s treasured ʻōhiʻa lehua forest in Puna. Hiʻiaka is furious, and this leads to her love-making with Lohiau, his subsequent death at the hands of Pele, and Hiʻiaka’s frantic digging to recover the body.

The ʻAilāʻau flows seem to be the most likely candidate because it covered so much of Puna. The timing seems right, too – after the Pele clan arrived from Kahiki, before the caldera formed (Hiʻiaka’s frantic digging may record this), and before the encounters with Kamapuaʻa, some of which probably deal with explosive eruptions between about 1500 and 1790. (Information here is from USGS and Westervelt.)

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Ailaau Flow-Kīlauea summit overflows-their ages and distribution in the Puna District, Hawai’i-Clague-map

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Age and Distribution of Lava Flows in Kilauea-USGS

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December 4, 2015 by Peter T Young 2 Comments

Hālawa

“Early the next morning, with a pleasant breeze from the NE, we stood over towards the east point of Mororoi (Molokai.) … we sailed to the westward … In this the land rises rather abruptly from the sea, towards the lofty mountains in the center of the east part of Morotoi …”

“… and though the acclivity was great, yet the face of the country, diversified by eminences and vallies, bore a verdant and fertile appearance. It seemed to be well inhabited, in a high state of cultivation, and presented not only a rich but a romantic prospect.” (Captain George Vancouver, March 19, 1793)

“… a beautiful deep valley….watered by a large and delightful stream of fresh water which falls from the mountains…in two grand and beautiful cataracts one of which rushes over a perpendicular decent of more than five hundred feet into a deep…and crystal lake”.

“The stream which issues from the lake … is so situated as to be easily drawn off by sluices into the taro plots…. the valley is principally laid out in these small rectangular plots …” (Hitchcock, 1833; NPS)

In 1877, a native Hawaiian described Hālawa “as a very fertile valley, with wild fruits, mountain shrimps, and much water in the streams…. There were nine hundred and thirteen taro patches and with the hundred and nine others that I hadn’t counted, they totaled a thousand and thirty-two patches. Most of the land is covered in taro”. (NPS)

“The glimpses of Molokai which one obtains from a steamer’s deck while passing to Honolulu from San Francisco or in passing to and from Maui (along its south shore,) give the impression that the island is bleak, mountainous and desolate.”

“Skirting its (north) shores on the Hālawa, Wailua and Pelekunu sides on Wilder’s fine steamer Likelike, gives a far different picture. For miles sheer precipices rise from the sea and tower 1,500 feet into the air.”

“Now and then, and sometimes in groups, beautiful waterfalls are seen on the face of the cliff, now falling in clear view for a couple of hundred feet, now hidden under denses masses of foliage, only to reappear further down, another silvery link In the watery thread which ends In a splash and scintillating mist in the breakers below.” (Hawaiian Gazette, March 31, 1905)

The windward valleys developed into areas of intensive irrigated taro cultivation and seasonal migrations took place to stock up on fish and precious salt for the rest of the year. Kalaupapa was well known for its bountiful ʻuala (sweet potato) crops and its fine-grained, white salt which was preferred over that from the salt ponds of Kawela and Kaunakakai. (Strazar)

John FG Stokes, who was Curator of Polynesian Ethnology at Bishop Museum, was sent to Molokai in 1909 to survey the remains of the ancient Hawaiian temples (heiau) found there. Stokes recorded thirteen medium-sized heiau distributed along the lower slopes and two large luakini heiau.

Molokai used to be referred to as ʻAina Momona (the bountiful land,) reflecting the great productivity of the island and its surrounding ocean.

It is about 38-miles long and 10-miles wide, an area of 260-square miles, making it the 5th largest of the main Hawaiian Islands (and the 27th largest island in the US.)

The island was formed by two volcanoes, East and West, emerging about 1.5-2-million years ago. The cliffs on the north-eastern part of the island are the result of subsidence and the “Wailua Slump” (a giant submarine landslide – about 25-miles long that tumbled about 120-miles offshore – about 1.4-million years ago.)

Hālawa Valley is the easternmost valley at the edge of Molokai’s north shore; four other major valleys span the coastline, from Hālawa westward toward Kalaupapa: from east to west they are Papalaua, Wailau, Pelekunu and Waikolu.

Archeological surveys indicate that by the 1300s, Hālawa Valley’s population had expanded inland, and small irrigation systems were developed along the streams.

By the 1600s, an extensive taro irrigation system dominated the valley’s settlement pattern. At that time, the lower valley was entirely covered in large rectangular fields watered by long irrigation ditches (taro loʻi made up about 55-acres of land.)

Hitchcock who established the first permanent Mission Station at Kaluaʻaha in 1832, gave a census figure of 6,000 for the island. (Strazar)

These early counts were generally taken in the field by both native school teachers and missionaries. During this period, the Reverends Hitchcock and Smith preached once a week at seven different stations from Kamaloʻo to Hālawa, and in 1833 they estimated the population of the entire island to be about 3,300. (Strazar)

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Halawa Valley shoreline and cove

Halawa Stream at the lower end of the valley

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Halawa-Bay

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Hawaiian woman seated in front of a grass house, Halawa, Molokai-Baker-PP-32-3-010

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Halawa Valley

Halawa waterfalls

Falls at the end of Halawa Valley

Halawa Park

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Halawa Selfie

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November 24, 2015 by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Kahoʻolawe

Kaho‘olawe is the smallest of the eight Main Hawaiian Islands, 11-miles long and 7-miles wide (approximately 28,800-acres,) rising to a height of 1,477-feet. It is seven miles southwest of Maui.

Archaeological evidence suggests human habitation began as early as 1000 AD; it is known as a navigational and religious center, as well as the site of an adze quarry. Subsistence farmers and fishers formerly populated Kaho‘olawe.

Interestingly, the entire island of Kaho‘olawe is part of an ahupua‘a from the Maui district of Honua‘ula. The island is divided into ʻili (smaller land units within ahupua‘a.)

Kekāuluohi “made Kahoʻolawe and Lānaʻi penal settlements for law breakers to punish them for such crimes as rebellion, theft, divorce, breaking marriage vows, murder and prostitution.” (Kamakau)

The first prisoners exiled to Kahoʻolawe were a Hawaiian man convicted of theft, and a woman accused of prostitution, both of whom were sent to the island on June 13, 1826. (Reeve; KIRC)

“The village is a collection of eight huts, and an unfinished adobe church. The chief has three large canoes for his use. In passing over the island, the walking had been found very tedious; for they sunk ankle-deep at each step.”

“The whole south part is covered with a light soil, composed of decomposed lava; and is destitute of vegetation, except a few stunted shrubs.”

“On the northern side of the island, there is a better soil, of a reddish colour, which is in places susceptible of cultivation. Many tracks of wild hogs were seen, but only one of the animals was met with.”

“The only article produced on the island is the sweet-potato, and but a small quantity of these. All the inhabitants are convicts, and receive their food from Maui: their number at present is about fifteen.”

“Besides this little cluster of convicts’ huts, there are one or two houses on the north end, inhabited by old women. Some of the convicts are allowed to visit the other islands, but not to remain.” (Wilkes, 1845)

The “Act of Grace” of Kamehameha III, in commemoration of the restoration of the flag by Admiral Thomas July 31, 1843, let “all prisoners of every description” committed for offenses during the period of cession “from Hawaiʻi to Niʻihau be immediately discharged,” royal clemency was apparently extended to include prisoners of earlier conviction. (Thrum)

Located in the “rain shadow” of Maui’s Haleakala, rainfall has been in short supply on Kaho‘olawe. Historically, a “cloud bridge” connected the island to the slopes of Haleakalā. The Naulu winds brought the Naulu rains that are associated with Kaho‘olawe (a heavy mist and shower of fine rain that would cover the island.)

In 1858 the first lease of Kahoʻolawe was sold at public auction. Plans were made to turn the Island into a sheep ranch. From then until World War II, Kahoʻolawe was effectively used as a livestock ranch.

A constant theme from 1858 on was elimination of wild animals that were destroying the vegetation. At first wild dogs, hogs, and goats were the predators. By the end of the 19th century, grazing of cattle, goats and sheep were the destroyers. (King; KIRC)

“The Island of Kahoolawe consists of one government land, at present under an expiring lease held by Mr Eben P Low, that runs out on January 1, 1913. This lease was formerly held by Mr. CC Conradt, now of Pukoʻo, Molokai, and was transferred by him to Mr Low a few years since.”

“Prior to that time the island had passed through many hands. It has been used continuously for many years for the grazing of cattle, and especially of sheep.” (Hawaiian Forester, 1910)

“A great part of the time it has been badly overstocked, a condition which has resulted in the destruction of the original cover of vegetation, followed by erosion and the loss of large quantities of valuable soil, much of which has literally been blown away to sea by the strong trade wind.”

“As the result of long years of overstocking, Kahoolawe has become locally a name practically synonymous with desolation and waste. The object of declaring the island a forest reserve is to put it in a position where, upon the expiration of the existing lease, effective steps could be taken toward its reclamation.” (Hawaiian Forester, 1910)

The Island was a forest reserve from August 25, 1910 to April 20, 1918. But, it was determined, “(I)t would be a foolish waste of money to attempt to reforest the bare top of the island; that for the good of the island the remaining sheep and goats should be exterminated or entirely removed”. (Hawaiian Forester, 1918)

“(T)here is a vast area of pili grass valuable for fattening cattle for the market and tons of algaroba beans on the island going to waste annually; that under a carefully prepared lease of the island with due restrictions and limitations good use could be made of these and at the same time the goats could be required to be exterminated.” (Hawaiian Forester, 1918)

While ranching restarted with a lease to Kahoʻolawe Ranch, it was a later use that further impacted the Island. Military practice bombing of the island is reported to have begun as early as 1920. (Lewis; american-edu)

Then, in May 1941, Kahoʻolawe Ranch signed a sublease for a portion of the island with the US Navy for $1 per year to 1952, when the Ranch’s lease expired. Seven months later, following the attack on Pearl Harbor and initiation of martial law, the military took over the whole island and ranching operations ended. (PKO)

Bombing of the island continued to 1990. Then, in 1992, the State of Hawai‘i designated Kahoʻolawe as a natural and cultural reserve, “to be used exclusively for the preservation and practice of all rights customarily and traditionally exercised by Native Hawaiians for cultural, spiritual, and subsistence purposes.” (KIRC)

In 1993, Congress voted to end military use of the Island and authorized $400-million for ordnance removal. In 2004, The Navy ended the Kahoʻolawe UXO Clearance Project.

At its completion, approximately 75% of the island was surface cleared of unexploded ordnance (UXO). Of this area, 10% of the island, or 2,647 acres, was additionally cleared to the depth of four feet. Twenty-five percent, or 6,692 acres, was not cleared and unescorted access to these areas remains unsafe. (KIRC)

With the help of hard work by volunteers and Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) staff, the island is healing and recovering. Kahoʻolawe is being planted with native species that include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and herbs.

Every year, the planting season begins with a ceremony that consists of appropriate protocols, chants, and hoʻokupu given at a series of rain koʻa shrines that were built in 1997.

The shrines link ʻUlupalakua on Maui to Luamakika, located at the summit of Kahoʻolawe, seeking to call back the cloud bridge and the rains that come with it.

I was fortunate to have served on the Kahoʻolawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) for 4½-years and had the opportunity to visit and stay overnight on Kaho‘olawe; the experiences were memorable and rewarding.

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aerial-kahoolawe

Cloud Bridge – Kahoolawe to Maui

Cloud Bridge – Maui to Kahoolawe

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Kahoolawe South-hellers

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KIRC Place names

November 2, 2015 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Palaʻau

Palaʻau is Molokai’s only state park; DLNR has a license to use the land as a park from the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands.

In 1921, when the Hawaiian Homes Act of 1920 went into effect, title to the approximate 230-acres of Palaʻau 3 (Palaʻau) was transferred to the Hawaiian Homes Commission (the actual transfer and DHHL use happened in 1923, after fences were finished.)

The area had been part of lands previously used as cattle pasture, first by Kamehameha V Lot Kapuāiwa, then by Molokai Ranch (formed in 1897.) The area was leased by Molokai Ranch until it expired in 1918.

Then, on July 19, 1928, the Hawaiian Homes Commission passed a motion to dedicate Palaʻau 3 for the purpose of reforestation by the Board of Agriculture and Forestry. (A 1928 Attorney General opinion noted the lands must first be returned to control of the Commissioner of Public Lands before it could be set aside as a forest reserve.)

The next year, the Hawaiian Homes Commission officially returned Palaʻau 3 to the Commissioner of Public Lands of the Territory of Hawai’i, to again be managed as part of the Moloka’i Forest Reserve. (At the time, the lands were not being leased to native Hawaiians as authorized under the provisions of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act.)

On March 25, 1930, by proclamation of the Governor of the Territory of Hawai’i, Palaʻau was added to the Molokai Forest Reserve.

Between 1931 and 1933, Palaʻau was fenced off and the Board of Commissioners began reforestation of the land with trees as follows: about 3,500 in 1931, 8,400 in 1932 and over 5,100 in 1933.

In 1936, a nursery was started as part of the Emergency Conservation Work project, or the Civilian Conservation Corps and trees were grown for outplanting at Palaʻau. Within the next 5-year nearly 200,000 additional trees were planted.

The government and DHHL recognized “forest growth is a well-recognized aid to the protection and conservation of water which is one of the prime necessities in the case of persons who will secure leases of Hawaiian home lands.” (Letter of Territorial Forester to Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry, May 18, 1936)

Besides its watershed benefits, folks also saw the benefit of using the property for park purposes, as well as a lookout over Kalaupapa. On June 29, 1955, Palaʻau was established as Palaʻau Park under the Territorial Parks system.

In addition to a small campground and passive recreation area, one of the primary purposes of the Palaʻau Park is the Kalaupapa overlook. (Nearby Parking and a short walk take people to the north shore cliffs and overlook of the peninsula.)

In addition there are several cultural features within the site, primarily the Nanahoa complex. These four sites include two phallic stones.

The six foot high male stone is called ‘Kauleonanahoa’ (the penis of Nanahoa – ‘one of the finest examples of phallic stones found throughout the Hawaiian Islands.’)

“The rock was believed to make barren women fertile and as a precaution newly-wedded women would sit on it one night.”

The female stone has several names, including Kawahuna,’ ‘Nawaʻakaluli’ and ‘Waihuʻehuʻe’ (‘it appears to be in its natural state with a large groove down the center.’)

The more than 24-petroglyphs are located on four boulders and consists of human stick figures and a series of grooves located near the base of the rocks which may have been used to sharpen the tools employed to carve the petroglyphs. A holua slide has been destroyed since it was reported in 1909.

In 1984, Palaʻau Park was returned, together with various other parcels, to the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands; however, the State entered into a license agreement with DHHL for the continued use of the public park, campground and lookout.

The Kalaupapa overlook in Palaʻau State Park is a major visitor attraction. The lookout is located at the northern end of the main road. Access to the lookout is via a footpath from the paved parking lot. A series of informational exhibit panels provide a history of the Kalaupapa Peninsula and Hansen’s disease.

Ke Aupuni Lokahi Inc has been working with the state and National Park on their Ala Palaʻau project to restore native forest habitat and rare species in the area, improve views of Kalaupapa peninsula and the cliffs of the northern coast of Molokai, and provide interpretation and education of these unique natural and cultural resources.

The vision of the project is to provide a place-based learning experience where local schools, community members, and interested visitors can come to learn about Molokai’s rich biological and cultural heritage.

It is intended as a hands-on educational experience that encourages pride in Palaʻau State Park’s resources and highlights the importance of preserving Molokai’s native species and ecosystems while teaching about the role they play in Hawaiian culture. (Lots of information here is from McGregor.)

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