Peter T Young

October 30, 2024 by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Waikīkī, Place of Healing

From historic times, Waikīkī was viewed not only as a place of peace and hospitality, but of healing. There was great mana (spiritual power) in Waikīkī. Throughout the 19th century, Hawai’i’s royalty also came here to convalesce.

The art of healing they practiced is known in the Islands as la‘au lapa‘au. In this practice, plants and animals from the land and sea, which are known to have healing properties, are combined with wisdom to treat the ailing.

At Waikīkī, Oʻahu on Kūhiō Beach, Hawaiian legend says Na Pōhaku Ola Kapaemāhu A Kapuni were placed here in tribute to four soothsayers, Kapaemāhu, Kahaloa, Kapuni and Kinohi, who came from Tahiti to Hawaiʻi (long before the reign of Oʻahu’s chief Kākuhihewa in the 16th century.)

Kapaemāhu was the leader of the four and honored for his ability to cast aside carnality and care for both men and women. Kapuni was said to envelop his patients with his mana. While Kinohi was the clairvoyant diagnostician, Kahaloa— whose name means “long breath”—was said to be able to breathe life into her patients.

They gained fame and popularity because they were able to cure the sick by laying their hands upon them. Before they returned to Tahiti, they asked the people to erect four large pōhaku as a permanent reminder of their visit and the cures they had accomplished.

Legend says that these stones were brought into Waikīkī from Waiʻalae Avenue in Kaimuki, nearly two miles away. Waikīkī was a marshland devoid of any large stones. These stones are basaltic, the same type of stone found in Kaimukī.

On the night of Kāne (the night that the moon rises at dawn,) the people began to move the rocks from Kaimukī to Kūhiō Beach. During a month-long ceremony, the healers are said to have transferred their names — Kapaemāhu, Kahaloa, Kapuni and Kinohi — and or spiritual power, to the stones.

One of the pōhaku used to rest where the surf would roll onto the beach known to surfers as “Baby Queens”, the second pōhaku would be found on the ʻEwa side of ʻApuakehau Stream (site of Royal Hawaiian Hotel), and the last two pōhaku once sat above the water line fronting Ulukou (near the site of the present Moana Hotel.) In 1963, they were relocated to Kūhiō Beach.

One of Waikīkī’s places of healing was the stretch of beach fronting the Halekūlani Hotel called Kawehewehe (the removal). The sick and the injured came to bathe in the kai, or waters of the sea.

They might have worn a seaweed lei of limu kala and left it in the water as a symbol of the asking of forgiveness for past sins (misdeeds were believed to be a cause of illness and “kala” means to forgive.) Hawaiians still use the sea to heal their sores and other ailments, but few come to Kawehewehe.

From 1912 to 1929, a home here was converted to a small two-story boardinghouse, and operated by La Vancha Maria Chapin Gray, known as “Grays-by-the-Sea.” Its grounds were later incorporated into the Halekūlani. The beach is still known today as Gray’s Beach. (Kawehewehe is also the name of the surfing site called Populars, today.)

The natural sand-filled channel that runs through the reef makes it one of the best swimming areas along this stretch of ocean. It was dredged in the early-1950s to allow catamarans to come ashore at Gray’s Beach. The channel lies between two surf sites, Paradise and Number Threes.

There was a Kawehewehe Pond; people with a physical ailment would come to the pond in search of healing. A kahuna, or priest, would place a lei limu kala around their neck, and instruct them to submerge themselves in the healing waters of the pond. When the lei came off and floated downstream, it was said that the afflicted ones were healed.

It was for this particular ceremony that the area was called Kawehewehe, which literally means “the removal.” It was on the ʻEwa side of the Royal Hawaiian Hotel (adjacent to Helumoa), just east of the Halekulani Hotel, Waikīkī.

Kawehewehe takes its meaning from the root word – wehe – which means to remove. (Pukui.) Thus, as the name implies, Kawehewehe was a traditional place where people went to be cured of all types of illnesses – both physical and spiritual – by bathing in the healing waters of the ocean.

The patient might wear a seaweed (limu kala) lei and leave it in the water as a request that his sins be forgiven; hence the origin of the name kala (Lit., the removal.)

After bathing in the ocean, the person would duck under the water, releasing the lei from around his neck and letting the lei kala float out to sea. Upon turning around to return to shore, the custom is to never look back, symbolizing the oki (to sever or end) and putting an end to the illness. Leaving the lei in the ocean also symbolizes forgiveness (kala) and the leaving of anything negative behind.

In the 1880s, Helumoa was inherited by Kamehameha I’s great-granddaughter, Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop.

In the last days of her battle with breast cancer, Pauahi returned to Helumoa. Although the Princess could have gone anywhere to recuperate, she chose Helumoa, for the fond memories it recalled and the tranquility it provided.

Here she wrote the final codicils (amendments) of her will, in which she bequeathed her land to the Bishop Estate for the establishment of the Kamehameha Schools.

Further down the beach, Queen Liliʻuokalani found respite and healing at her Waikīkī retreats noting, “Hamohamo is justly considered to be the most life-giving and healthy district in the whole extent of the island of Oʻahu …”

“… there is something unexplainable and peculiar in the atmosphere of that place, which seldom fails to bring back the glow of health to the patient, no matter from what disease suffering.”

The Queen “derived much amusement, as well as pleasure: for as the sun shines on the evil and the good, and the rain falls on the just and the unjust, I have not felt called upon to limit the enjoyment of my beach and shade-trees to any party in politics …”

“While in exile it has ever been a pleasant thought to me that my people, in spite of differences of opinions, are enjoying together the free use of my seashore home.”

The author, Robert Louis Stevenson, also found respite, here. In 1888, his health had been declining; he was told by his doctor to travel here because the climate was good for his bad health.

Stevenson’s remarks in the guest book note: “If anyone desires such old-fashioned things as lovely scenery, quiet, pure air, clean sea water, good food, and heavenly sunsets hung out before their eyes over the Pacific and the distant hills of Waianae, I recommend him cordially to the Sans Souci.”

From Kālia to Kawehewehe to Helumoa to Kūhiō Beach to Hamohamo to San Souci, there are many stories of the healing power at Waikīkī.

October 29, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Pratt, The Land Man

“[T]hey gave Ainahau to the city and the city wouldn’t take it, which would have been one of the glamorous tourist sites. [In a letter to Governor Lucius E. Pinkham, dated January 30, 1914, J, M. McChesney, Chairman of the Committee on Parks Civic Federation, states:

“A Resolution introduced in the last [Seventh] legislature [1913] to accept this munificent gift [Ainahau] was defeated by a majority of two; the general belief being that many of the legislators were influenced by the fact that if accepted by the [Territorial] government the heirs would be deprived of the property …”

“… and others voted against it on account of the cost of maintenance and still others on account of the conditions imposed [in A. S. Cleghorn’s will] that the grounds be closed nights.” (Thomas Alexander Kaulaahi Cleghorn oral history)

Then it was reported, ‘Āinahau has been sold “to James W Pratt and other interests and will immediately be cut up into building lots.” The price for the 11 2/3 acres was $60,000. The new owners plan to subdivide the property into forty lots and develop it into “an exclusive residence section. . . .”

“Only the trees necessary to make the roads are to be cut down, which will leave all the rare plants, flowers and trees, with which the grounds abound, for the new owners to dispose of as they see fit.”

The lots will be priced at $3,500 up. For the past three years the house and land have been leased by Mrs. E. H. Lewis and used as a hotel and she is “to continue with the hotel without interference.” (Star Bulletin, Jan 19, 1917; Thomas Alexander Kaulaahi Cleghorn oral history)

So, who is Pratt? … “James William Pratt [was] familiarily known to Honolulans as ‘Pratt the Land Man.’” (PCA, Dec 8, 1919)

“It is best to consult some one who knows the land and the climate before selecting a building site in Honolulu, or on the islands at large. The land office can put you right, or there is Pratt, the land man …”

“Mr. Jas. W. Pratt was for many years Land Commissioner, and he can tell you just where it is best to build.” (Mid-Pacific Magazine, January 1912)

Pratt was “Son of Horace C and Susan M McCue Pratt. [He was born December 9, 1861 in Greenbush, NY.] James W Pratt moved from New York to California in 1874, when he was a boy of 13. He attended public schools in Rotterdam, New York and Oakland California.”

“In 1878 he was employed at Oakland by the Western Union Telegraph Company, remaining there until 1881, when he joined the California Electric Works at San Francisco, staying with that concern until 1884, when he came to Honolulu as superintendent of the Mutual Telephone Company, holding the position for nine years.”

“In 1893, following the overthrow of the monarchy, James W Pratt became prominently identified with the military department of the Provisional Government.”

“Two years later he became assistant superintendent of the Honolulu water works, and from 1901 to 1903 he was assessor and collector of tazes for Oahu.”

“For six years, from 1903 to 1909, he held the office of commissioner of public lands, after which he went into business for himself in real estate. …”

“One of the last projects of ‘Pratt the Land Man’ in Honolulu was the cutting up of the Ainahau tract for sale of lots, but his health was such that he left the work for others to take up.” (PCA, Dec 8, 1919)

Pratt married Ellen M. Torbert in Honolulu. December 2, 1895; they had three children, Susan Adelaide, James William, Jr, and Linton Torbert. (Siddall)

With respect to Ainahau, “on May 1, 1919, Percy M Pond, Honolulu real estate man, advertised 46 lots for sale, mostly at $1,400 to $2,200, representing a price of about 32 cents a square foot.” (Star Bulletin, June 2, 1956)

Pratt died December 6, 1919 in Berkley, CA, of heart disease. “Mr Pratt left the Islands for the mainland about 18 months ago hoping to benefit his health.” (PCA, Dec 8, 1919)

“[The house at Ainahau burned to the ground on August 2, 1921 while it was occupied by W. F. Aldrich, a motion picture producer, and his wife Peggy. The fire was said to have originated from an automatic gas heater next to Aldrich’s darkroom, which had been the old kitchen.]”

“[An account of the fire in the Honolulu Advertiser on August 1, 1921 states that the banyan tree saved the bungalows on the grounds, one owned by Samuel Parker and another occupied by Mr. McElroy being the only ones scorched. The article also mentions that the house had been used as a hotel at one time.]” (Thomas Alexander Kaulaahi Cleghorn oral history)

October 28, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Cattle in Kalalau

“In the Nāpali District, the ahupua‘a of Kalalau, Pohakuao, Honopu, Hanakapiai and one-half of Hanakoa were granted to the Government Land inventory (Buke Mahele, 1848).”

“Portions of the lands that fell into the government inventory, were subsequently sold as Royal Patent Grants to individuals who applied for them. The grantees were generally long-time kama‘āina residents of the lands they sought.”

“As a result of the sale of lands from the government inventory, forty-five grants were sold to thirty-seven applicants for lands in the ahupua‘a of Hanalei and Wai‘oli, Halele‘a District; the division being forty-one parcels in Wai‘oli and four parcels in Hanalei.”

An archaeological Survey report states “during the second half of the 19th century, Kalalau Valley residents were a cooperative, community that had a ‘reciprocal, basically subsistence, fishing, farming orientation’ and traded with people in Hanalei, Waimea, and Ni‘ihau, for items such as coffee, matches, kerosene, and soap.”

“[R]esidents of Kalalau, like other residents of ancient Hawai‘i, moved seasonally from the shoreline to the mountains within their ahupua‘a.”

“The survey further reports that most of its residents left by the early 1900s and the valley was finally abandoned by human residents in 1919, except for visits by hunters, fishermen, and scientists.” (Intermediate Court of Appeals)

“Thirty grants were sold in the Nāpali District to twenty-seven applicants; the lands being situated in Kalalau and Honopu.” (Kumu Pono) “At one time the [Robinson] family controlled another 4,500 [acres] on the north shore, including Kalalau Valley.” (Island Breath)

“The Robinsons are a family originally from Scotland having large landholdings in Hā‘ena and considerable acreage of the west side of Kauai. The family purchased the entire island of Ni‘ihau in the mid-1800s. In Halele‘a, they ran cattle in Hā‘ena, Wainiha, Lumaha‘i, and Waipā, as well as in several valleys in the Nā Pali district.” (Carlos in Pacific Worlds)

“Robinson owned their land, so they were paniolo out there, they were working for Robinson. So, when you talked about all the cattle days and so forth and paniolo, they were all working for Robinson.” (Makaala in Pacific Worlds)

“For many years, before selling it to the State, Selwyn [Robinson, former manager of Niihau Ranch from 1917 to 1922 – he then managed Makaweli Ranch on Kauai for the next fifty years] owned Kalalau Valley on the Napali Coast, and ran cattle there.” (Paniolo Hall of Fame)

“A small branch of the [Makaweli] ranch is maintained on the Napali or northwest coast of Kauai where the Kalalau valley is used for pasturage”. “The Robinsons were grazing cattle in Kalalau, and would drive them along the trail between Hā‘ena and Kalalau.” (Maly)

“The Makaweli Ranch is controlled by the [Robinsons]. The land was originally purchased mostly from Hawaiian Chiefs and the Monarchy, although it also occupies some leased lands in the Waimea, Mokihana and Hanapepe sections.” (CTAHR, 1929)

“They raised pipi [cattle]. They would come with the whale boat from Ni‘ihau to Kalalau. … I think [they got there] by ship that they dragged them all the way, by the whale boat.” (Val Ako to Kepa Maly)

“Each summer [Selwyn] took the cowboys from Makaweli to camp in [Kalalau] valley and they would bring out the cattle along the narrow trail to Haena. In the early days, he also used to hunt wild cattle in the high mountains of Kauai.” (Paniolo Hall of Fame)

“They would walk along, the pipi would go out along a trail and graze in Kalalau … And then bring them out the same way … Until after a while, then they got those surplus landing crafts.” (Stanley Ho affirmations to Kepa Maly)

“[M]y dad used to always tell us, when had people in [Kalalau], ‘You take in what you get and you get Kalalau horses.’ So if you like send out something, you put ‘em on the Ha‘ena horse.”

“But if you went in, you gotta send something out, these people gotta send something out, they just put ‘em on the other horse, Ha‘ena horse, and let ‘em go, and he work his way out.”

“And then the same thing you do: when you come home, you like send something, you take Kalalau horse, just put on, he go back home.” (Sampson in Pacific Worlds)

In 1974, the Division of State Parks acquired Kalalau Valley and established the valley as a wilderness park. (Intermediate Court of Appeals)

Here’s a view along a tight spot along the trail (about mile 7) … Crawler’s Ledge (where cattle once trod):

October 27, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Brats

“To be born and grow up the child of a serving soldier gives one a unique background and upbringing, an observation that applies just as much during the twenty-first century as it did when Britain’s standing army officially came into being in 1689.” (TACA)

“Over the hills, and over the main,
To Flanders, Portugal, or Spain:
The queen commands, and we’ll obey –
Over the hills and far away.

We all shall lead more happy lives,
By getting rid of brats and wives,
That scold and brawl both night and day –
Over the hills and far away.”

These are some of the lines to a song in the comedy ‘The Recruiting Officer’ by the Irish writer George Farquhar. “This comedy was first produced on April 8, 1706, at Drury Lane, and was very successful. “

“It is one of the liveliest plays in our language: the plot carefully constructed and held together by amusing yet probable incidents, the scenes illustrative of certain phases of social life ignored by the historian, and the dialogue, is not supremely witty, always genial and vivacious.”

“It is the truest picture we have of the recruiting service at the close of the seventeenth century, and shows the arts that were once used to fire the ambition and appeal to the ignorance of our country bumpkins. The swagger and sentiments of the rival captains serve as excellent foils to each other.” (Farquhar)

The play “described soldier life and that of their dependents. Back then, married soldiers were divided into two categories: the lucky few who were allowed to have their families live in the barracks and be taken care of by regimental funds, and those whose families had to live outside the barracks. The song referenced the latter as being ‘brats and wives.’” (Lange, DoD News)

‘War slang: American fighting words and phrases since the Civil War’ defines ‘Army brat. A child of an Army officer’ and ‘G.I. brat. A child of a member of the armed forces’. (Dickson)

Some suggest that ‘brat’ is a conjunction of ‘barrack rat’. At the end of the eighteenth century, the term ‘barrack rat’ was used in the United Kingdom.

“‘Barrack rat’ also surfaced in ‘A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English.’ It cited the book ‘Old Soldier Sahib’ written in 1936 by Frank Richards, a British soldier who detailed his experiences while stationed in India and Burma during the early 20th century.” (Lange, DoD News)

“It is entirely possible that the term ‘barrack rat’ was constricted to become the term ‘brat’ that we know and use today.” (Clifton)

Still looking at the UK, some suggest that ‘brat’ is an acronym for British Regiment Attached Traveller’ (an administrative term used to classify the families of service personnel deployed abroad). (ArmyBratJourney)

The reference apparently crossed the pond and got into the American lexicon. The October 1941 listing in “American Speech’ notes the ‘Glossary of Army Slang’ – which defines, ‘Army Brat. Son or daughter of Army officer.’

Another definition suggests “Army Brat. (slang) a child of an army officer. This is a term applied in fondness to the officers’ progeny by officers, soldiers and the families themselves …”

“… including the young sons and daughters who are proud of the fact that they form part of an army post’s everyday life as ‘army brats.’”

Other wording for the acronym are also suggested … such as, ‘Bold Responsible Adaptable Tolerant’ and ‘Born Raised And Trained’.

A little while ago, some suggested in a Washington Post article to drop the BRAT reference and replace it with CHAMP (Child Heroes Attached to Military Personnel), asking, ‘Would you rather be called a brat or a champ?’ (Kelly, Washington Post)

A follow-up to that noted, “‘if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it’ category, the acronym CHAMPs (Child Heroes Attached to Military Personnel) doesn’t describe a child of the military.”

“I grew up the daughter of a US Navy officer. We were always called ‘Navy juniors,’ which was unmentioned in the article. I had numerous friends who were children of the other services, and they called themselves ‘brats.’”

“No one thought anything negative about it. The word champ or champions is widely used in the sports world and is not historic to the military. ‘Brats’ is a nickname of honor that doesn’t need fixing.” (McLean, Washington Post)

041127-N-3019M-004 Marine Corps Air Base Kaneohe, Hawaii (Nov. 27, 2004) – A family member of a Sailor assigned to the “Skinny Dragons” of Patrol Squadron Four (VP-4), waves goodbye to her father as he departs aboard an C-40A Clipper assigned to the “Lonestar Express” of Fleet Logistics Support Squadron Five Nine (VR-59) for a scheduled deployment to the 5th and 7th Fleet areas of operations in the Western Pacific. A total of 390 Sailors from VP-4 are scheduled to deploy over the next week in support of Operations Iraqi Freedom (OIF). U.S. Navy photo by Journalist 3rd Class Ryan C. McGinley (RELEASED)

October 26, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

250 Years Ago … First Continental Congress

In 1774, the British Parliament passed a series of laws collectively known as the Intolerable Acts, with the intent to suppress unrest in colonial Boston by closing the port and placing it under martial law. In response, colonial protestors led by a group called the Sons of Liberty issued a call for a boycott.

Merchant communities were reluctant to participate in such a boycott unless there were mutually agreed upon terms and a means to enforce the boycott’s provisions.

Across North America, colonists rose in solidarity with the people of Massachusetts. Goods arrived in Massachusetts from as far south as Georgia, and by late spring 1774, nine of the colonies called for a continental congress. Virginia’s Committee of Correspondence is largely credited with originating the invitation. The colony of Connecticut was the first to respond.

Colonial legislatures empowered delegates to attend a Continental Congress which would set terms for a boycott. The colonies elected delegates to the First Continental Congress in various ways. Some delegates were elected through their respective colonial legislatures or committees of correspondence.

The Congress first convened in Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on September 5, 1774, with delegates from each of the 13 colonies except Georgia. (Georgia was facing a war with neighboring Native American tribes and the colony did not want to jeopardize British assistance.)

As delegates pondered the fate of Massachusetts, Joseph Warren and a committee of men from Suffolk County, Massachusetts, formulate a plan of resistance. Proposed on September 9, 1774 and, speaking with one voice, the delegates unanimously endorse the document on September 17, their first official act.

This plan encouraged Massachusetts to protest the Intolerable Acts by stockpiling military supplies, operating an independent government, boycotting British goods, and announcing no allegiance to Britain and a king who failed to consider the wishes of the colonists.

Reaction to these Resolves was mixed. While some supported such a bold proposal and felt it was an appropriate reaction to the British, others feared it would cause war.

Debate was later stalled for weeks while a statement of American rights was debated at length. Producing this statement required answering constitutional questions that had been asked for over a century.

The hardest constitutional question surrounded Britain’s right to regulate trade. Joseph Galloway, a conservative delegate from Pennsylvania, insisted on releasing a statement clarifying Britain’s right to regulate trade in the American colonies. However, other delegates were opposed to giving Britain explicit rights to colonial trade.

During this debate, Galloway introduced A Plan of Union between the American Colonies and Britain. The Plan of Union called for the creation of a Colonial Parliament that would work hand-in-hand with the British Parliament. The British monarch would appoint a President General and the colonial assemblies would appoint delegates for a three-year term. Galloway’s plan was defeated in a 6-5 vote.

On October 14, 1774, the First Continental Congress adopted their Declaration and Resolves. This stated the group’s objections to the Coercive Acts, listed the rights of the colonists, and itemized objections to British rule beyond the Intolerable Acts.

The list of rights insisted that Colonists were “entitled to life, liberty, and property” and “that foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council;”

Furthermore, the delegates promptly began drafting and discussing the Continental Association. This would become their most important policy outcome. The Continental Association, adopted October 20, 1774, reaffirmed the Colonists’ British connections and allegiance to the King,

The Association called for an end to British imports starting in December 1774 and an end to exporting goods to Britain in September 1775. This policy would be enforced by local and colony-wide committees of inspection.

These committees would check ships that arrived in ports, force colonists to sign documents pledging loyalty to the Continental Association, and suppress mob violence. The committees of inspection even enforced frugality, going so far as to end lavish funeral services and parties. Many colonial leaders hoped these efforts would bond the colonies together economically.

Virginia secured the Continental Association’s delay in ending exports to Britain. Before the Continental Congress, Virginia had passed its own association that delayed ending exports to avoid hurting farmers with a sudden change in policy. The delegates from Virginia showed up to the Continental Congress united, and refused to waiver on the issue of delaying the ban on exports to Britain.

The idea of using non-importation as leverage was neither new nor unexpected. Prior to the Continental Congress, eight colonies had already endorsed the measure and merchants had been warned against placing any orders with Britain, as a ban on importation was likely to pass.

Some colonies had already created their own associations to ban importation and, in some cases, exportation. The Virginia Association had passed at the Virginia Convention with George Washington in attendance.

Washington’s support of using non-importation as leverage against the British can be traced back as far as 1769 in letters between him and George Mason. When the colonies first started publicly supporting non-importation, Bryan Fairfax, a longtime friend of Washington’s, wrote to him urging him to not support the Continental Association and to instead petition Parliament.

Many delegates felt that using the Continental Association as leverage would be impractical without explicit demands and a plan of redress. However, Congress struggled to come up with a list of rights, grievances, and demands.

Furthermore, to only repeal laws that were unfavorable to the delegates without a list of rights would be a temporary fix to the larger issue of continued British abuse. To address these issues, Congress formed a Grand Committee.

Finally, at the end of the First Continental Congress, the delegates adopted a Petition addressed to “The King’s Most Excellent Majesty” on October 26, 1774. In noted, in part,

“Your majesty, we are confident, justly rejoices, that your title to the crown is thus founded on the title of your people to liberty; and therefore we doubt not but your royal wisdom must approve the sensibility that teaches your subjects anxiously to guard the blessing they received from divine providence, and thereby to prove the performance of that compact which elevated the illustrious house of Brunswick to the imperial dignity it now possesses. …”

“By giving this faithful information we do all in our power to promote the great objects of your royal cares, the tranquillity of your government and the welfare of your people. …”

“Yielding to no British subjects, in affectionate attachment to your majesty’s person, family, and government, we too dearly prize that privilege of expressing that attachment, by those proofs which are honourable to the prince who receives them, and to the people who give them, ever to resign it to any body of men upon earth. …”

“We ask but for peace, liberty and safety. We wish not a diminution of the prerogative, nor do we solicit the grant of any new right in our favour. Your royal authority over us and our connection with Great-Britain, we shall always carefully and zealously endeavour to support and maintain. …”

“We therefore most earnestly beseech your majesty, that your royal authority and interposition may be used for our relief, and that a gracious answer may be given to this petition.”

Many delegates were skeptical about changing the king’s attitude towards the colonies, but believed that every opportunity should be exhausted to de-escalate the conflict before taking more radical action.

They did not draft such a letter to the British Parliament as the colonists viewed the Parliament as the aggressor behind the recent Intolerable Acts. Not fully expecting the standoff in Massachusetts to explode into full-scale war, the Congress agreed to reconvene in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775.

By the time Congress met again, war was already underway, and thus the delegates to the Second Continental Congress formed the Continental Army and dispatched George Washington to Massachusetts as its commander.

Click the following link to a general summary about the First Continental Congress:

Click to access First-Continental-Congress-SAR-RT.pdf

Click to access First-Continental-Congress.pdf