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November 11, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Veterans Day

World War I – known at the time as “The Great War” – officially ended when the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, in the Palace of Versailles outside the town of Versailles, France.

However, fighting ceased seven months earlier when an armistice, or temporary cessation of hostilities, between the Allied nations and Germany went into effect on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month.

For that reason, November 11, 1918, is generally regarded as the end of “the war to end all wars.”

An Act (52 Stat. 351; 5 U. S. Code, Sec. 87a) approved May 13, 1938, made the 11th of November in each year a legal holiday—a day to be dedicated to the cause of world peace and to be thereafter celebrated and known as “Armistice Day.”

With the approval of subsequent legislation (Public Law 380) on June 1, 1954, November 11th became a day to honor American veterans of all wars.

Veterans Day continues to be observed on November 11, regardless of what day of the week on which it falls.

Today, Veterans Day, is a celebration to honor America’s veterans for their patriotism, love of country, and willingness to serve and sacrifice for the common good.

I join with others in our grateful nation as we come together to honor and thank our veterans and their families for their service and sacrifice on behalf of us and our country.

To all who served, Thank You.

November 9, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Missile-Age Minutemen

It was not until World War II that the technology of using rockets and missiles in warfare became firmly established. During the final months of World War II, several major defense contractors studied the likelihood that evolving technologies could produce guided missiles to intercept bombers and surface-to-surface missiles.

The Cold War, a term used to describe the hostile relations between communist and non-communist countries, greatly accelerated missile and rocket technology. (Mason; HAER)

During the Cold War era that followed World War II, the threat of foreign attack on US soil shifted from naval assault to air attack, particularly by aircraft carrying nuclear weapons. Thus, the Army Air Defense Artillery took responsibility from the Coast Artillery branch for defending the US. (NPS)

The perception that the Soviet Union might be capable of constructing a sizable fleet of long-range, nuclear-armed bomber aircraft capable of reaching the continental US provided motivation to rapidly develop and deploy a missile system to defend major US population centers and other vital targets. (TheMilitaryStandard)

The potential threat posed by such aircraft became much more serious when, in 1949, the Russians exploded their first atomic bomb.

The goal of the Army in the 1950s was to establish a nationwide defense system of surface-to-air guided missiles (SAMs) placed in critical positions around major urban centers or strategic military installations within the continental US, Hawaii and Europe.

Prior to the guided missile era, the Hawaiʻi Air National Guard, armed with four batteries of 90-mm Anti-Aircraft Artillery guns, provided antiaircraft defense of Oahu. The battalion’s four firing batteries were deployed to Sand Island (two,) Fort Barrette (one) and Waianae (one,) with battalion headquarters at Fort Ruger. (Bennett)

The development of a missile-based air defense system necessitated the reorganization of the Army command structure. In 1950, all artillery units were joined to a new continental air defense system under the US Army Antiaircraft Command (later renamed the US Army Air Defense Command;) control was placed under the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD.) (Mason; HAER)

Nike, named for the mythical Greek goddess of victory, was the name given to a program which ultimately produced the world’s first successful, widely-deployed, guided surface-to-air missile system. (TheMilitaryStandard)

The missile was first test-fired in 1951, and the first Nike Ajax battalion was emplaced at Fort Meade, Maryland in 1953. As the Nike Ajax system underwent testing during the early-1950s, the Army became concerned that the missile was incapable of stopping a massed Soviet air attack.

To enhance the missile’s capabilities, the Army explored the feasibility of equipping Ajax with a nuclear warhead, but when that proved impractical, in July 1953 the service authorized development of a second generation surface-to-air missile, the Nike Hercules.

Conversion from conventional artillery to missiles in the continental US was complete by July 1958. The Nike Hercules placements in the field expanded over the next 6-years. (Federation of American Scientists)

Coastal defenses during this period largely depended on the Nike antiaircraft missile system. The Nike system was not only the most expensive missile system ever deployed, it was also the most widespread (300 sites in 30 states) and longest-lived (25 years nationwide.) (NPS)

The missile sites were designed and constructed by the Army Corps of Engineers, and standardized plans were generally used. (However, the Hawaiʻi facilities were typically above ground launching sites with berms protecting the launchers.)

Originally, the Army planned to build eight batteries at six missile sites around the island. This plan was eventually reduced in scope, and six batteries were built at four areas (two single and two double batteries.)

The four sites were at Dillingham Air Force Base in Mokuleʻia (Kawaihāpai;) Kahuku Army Training Area near Mt Kawela; Bellows Air Force Station at Waimanalo and Barbers Pt (Palehua,) on the southwestern portion of the Waianae Mountain Range.

Barber’s Point and Bellows Field each hosted two batteries and had 24 missiles, while the single batteries each had 12 missiles.

The sites were coordinated in their defense efforts through direction from the Army Air Defense Command Post located at Fort Ruger in a tunnel in Diamond Head and were manned by Army Guardsmen.

A typical Nike air defense site consisted of two separate parcels of land. One area was known as the Integrated Fire Control Area. This site contained the Nike system’s ground-based radar and computer systems designed to detect and track hostile aircraft, and to guide the missiles to their targets.

The second parcel of land was known as the Launcher Area. At the launcher area, Nike missiles were stored horizontally. While elsewhere, the missiles were stored in underground missile magazines, the Hawaiʻi facilities were typically above-ground magazines and launching sites with berms protecting the launchers.

The Nike missile sites were manned 24-hours a day by the Hawaiʻi National Guard and were armed with the nuclear-capable Nike Hercules surface-to-air-missiles. (Army)

Hawaiʻi and Alaska were the only locations where live Nike missiles were test fired. Targets included computer generated points in space and miniature airplanes. No missile was ever fired in anger.

While the rest of the Nike force conducted its annual live fire practices at the White Sands Missile Range in NM, the Hawaiʻi Guard was unique in that it conducted its annual live-fire certifications from mobile launchers firing off the north shore of the island of Oʻahu. (National Guard)

Hawaiʻi was also the only state to man all of its firing batteries with Guardsmen; in the continental US the Guard manned about a third of all Nike sites. (National Guard)

The Hawaiʻi units were the only National Guard units to operate a command post. Guardsmen had demonstrated their ability to conduct real-world missions while in a part-time, state-controlled, status, in the process proudly adopting for themselves the title “Missile-Age Minutemen.”

The facilities were continuously operated until the closure of all four Nike sites on O`ahu in March 1970, when the entire Nike Program was closed down as part of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) with the Soviet Union (with the exception of batteries in Alaska and Florida that stayed active until the late 1970s; by 1975 all Nike Hercules sites had been deactivated.)

November 8, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Establishing the Waiakea – Hilo Mission Station

The first American Protestant missionaries first anchored in Hawai‘i on April 4, 1820. “[T]he first mission station on the Hawaiian Islands [was established] at Kailua, on the Island of Hawaii. However, unfortunately, within eight months, this mission station was temporarily closed.” (Nettie Hammond Lyman)

“In April of 1823, a second band of missionaries arrived in Honolulu. The increased numbers made it possible for one or more new stations to be started.”

“There had been a desire during these three years to resume the Kailua Station, and to establish a second station on Hawaii Island, the largest island of the group, and the most important, on account of its size, its large population and it natural resources.”

“It seemed desirable to make a careful survey of the entire island of Hawaii before deciding upon the location of any new station. By June 23, 1823, arrangements were completed …”

“… an exploring party, consisting of Rev Asa Thurston and Rev William Ellis, and, from the newly arrived missionaries, Rev Artemas Bishop and Mr Joseph Goodrich was formed. Mr Harwood, an ingenious mechanic, joined the party out of curiosity and a desire to be helpful.”

“Four months were spent in this exploration. Studies were made of the geographical character, the agricultural possibilities, and the customs of the people. Preaching services were held, visits made, and the desirability of establishing a mission and establishing schools in their midst, were discussed.”

“Two immediate results followed this exploration. The former station at Kailua, which had been closed for three years, was resumed in November of this year, 1823, and arrangements were under way to start a new station in January in Waiakea, in Hilo.” (Nettie Hammond Lyman)

“The face of the country in the vicinity of Waiakea is the most beautiful we have yet seen, which is probably occasioned by the humidity of the atmosphere, the frequent rains that fall here, and the long repose which the district has experienced from volcanic emptions.”

“The light and fertile soil is formed by decomposed lava, with a considerable portion of vegetable mould. The whole is covered with luxuriant vegetation, and the greater part of it formed into plantations, where plantains, bananas, sugar-cane, taro, potatoes, and melons, come to the greatest perfection.”

“Groves of cocoa-nut and breadfruit trees are seen in every direction loaded with fruit, or clothed with abundant foliage. The houses are mostly larger and better built than those of many districts through which we had passed.”

“We thought the people generally industrious; for in several of the less fertile parts of the district we saw small pieces of lava thrown up in heaps, and potato vines growing very well in the midst of them, though we could scarcely perceive a particle of soil.”

“Taking every circumstance into consideration, this appears a most eligible spot for a missionary station. The fertility of the soil, the abundance of fresh water, the convenience of the harbour, the dense population, and the favourable reception we have met with, all combine to give it a stronger claim to immediate attention than any other place we have yet seen, except Kairua.”

“There are 400 houses in the bay, and probably not less than 2000 inhabitants, who would be immediately embraced in the operations of a missionary station here, besides the populous places to the north and south, that might be occasionally visited by itinerant preachers from Waiakea. (William Ellis)

“ln the afternoon we waited on Maaro [Ma‘alo] the chief, to ask his opinion respecting missionaries settling permanently in his neighbourhood. He said, perhaps it would be well; that if the king and chiefs approved of it, he should desire it.”

“We asked if he would patronize and protect missionaries, and their families, provided the king and chiefs approved of their settling at Waiakea. He answered, ‘Yes, certainly,’ and, at the same time, pointed out several places where they might build their houses.” (Ellis)

“We told him that the king, Karaimoku [Kalanimōku], Kaahumanu, and the governor, approved of instructors coming to teach the people of Waiakea; but that we were also desirous to obtain his opinion, before any arrangements were made for their removal from Oahu.”

“He again repeated that he thought it would be a good thing; and that if the missionaries came with the approbation of the king and chiefs, he should be glad to witness their arrival. We then took leave of Maaro, and the chiefs that were with him.” (Ellis)

“Hilo as a major division of Hawaii included the southeastern part of the windward coast most of which was in Hamakua, to the north of Hilo Bay. This, the northern portion, had many scattered settlements above streams running between high, forested kula lands, now planted with sugar cane.”

“From Hilo Bay southeastward to Puna the shore and inland are rather barren and there were few settlements. The population of Hilo was anciently as now concentrated mostly around and out from Hilo Bay, which is still the island’s principal port.”

“The Hilo Bay region is one of lush tropical verdure and beauty, owing to the prevalence of nightly showers and moist warmth which prevail under the northeasterly trade winds into which it faces. (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

“In the marshes surrounding Waiakea Bay, east of Hilo, taro was planted in a unique way known as kanu kipi. Long mounds were built on the marshy bottom with their surface two or three feet above water level. Upon the top and along the sides of these mounds taro was planted.”

“Flood waters which occasionally submerged the entire mound are said to have done no harm, as the flow was imperceptible. This swampy land is now abandoned to rank grass.”

“Kipi (mounds) were also formerly made along Alenaio Stream above Hilo. We are told that farther seaward in Waiakea taro is still grown by the ingenious method of heaping up stones around a taro huli which is submerged in water, and held upright by chunks of lava; the stones presumably accumulate refuse enough to nourish the taro, along with the food taken in by the roots from lava and water.”

“On the lava-strewn plain of Waiakea and on the slopes between Waiakea and the Wailuku River, dry taro was formerly planted wherever there was enough soil. There were forest plantations in Pana‘ewa and in all the lower fern-forest zone above Hilo town and along the course of the Wailuku River.” (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

“On Saturday evening, January 24, 1824, the Waterwitch landed as Waiakea Bay, eight days after leaving Honolulu. In the party were Mr and Mrs Goodrich and Mr and Mrs Ruggles to take charge of the new station; Dr and Mrs Blatchley, to remain temporarily and Mr Levi Chamberlain and Rev Ellis to introduce the Mission, also Rev and Mrs Ely who were on their way to Kailua.”

The missionaries erected two houses and a church within two months after their arrival in the Waiakea area. The first church at this site was of pole and thatch construction; it was built about where the Hilo Iron Works building is situated.

At the time of the dedication of the Waiakea Mission Station. there were only two other churches in the Islands, one at Honolulu, O‘ahu and one at Waimea, Kauai. (NPS)

The first Waiakea Church was replaced with a second in December 31, 1825 (a thatched church near where Kalakaua Park is situated); later, October 15, 1829, it was replaced by another thatched church on Kino‘ole, near Waianuenue, and then another on Haili Street.

From 1820 until 1850, further development of Hilo proper was focused in this area around the mission. Constructed there were the Hilo Boarding School started by the missionaries, the missionary homes and government buildings including the royal cottages. Prior to this, the Hawaiian community development had centered one and one-half miles to the east, southeast in the Waiakea section of Hilo. (NPS)

During the late 1830s, Reverend Titus Coan increased the size of his congregation scattered along the east coast of the Big Island to 7,000 people in what was termed the ‘great Awakening’. (NPS)

The Waiakea-Hilo Mission, the largest of the mission stations, encompassed a territory of 920 square miles; 415 square miles in the Hilo District and 505 in the Puna District. The population was roughly estimated as from 12,000 to 20,000.

Of these, 7,000 were enrolled in the schools, (1831) with native teachers (who had scarcely more education than their pupils), and 7,000 were reported (1830) as church members”. (Lyman)

“A mighty wind having prostrated our large meeting-house, we commenced, during the winter of 1840-1, to collect materials for our first framed building. All the men who had axes went into the highland forest to fell trees and hew timber. … When the materials were brought together, we employed a Chinese carpenter at a reasonable price.” (Coan)

“This was the first framed church edifice built in Hilo, and in this building, capable of seating about 2,000 people. … When our first framed church building became old and dilapidated, we decided on replacing it with an edifice of stone and mortar.”

“But after a year’s hard toil in bringing stones on men’s shoulders, and after having dug a trench some six feet deep for the foundations without coming to the bed-rock, we, by amicable agreement, dismissed our mason and engaged two carpenters.” (Coan)

“The corner-stone [of the present Haili Church] was laid November 14, 1857, and the building was dedicated on the 8th of April, 1859. The material was good, and the workmanship faithful and satisfactory. … It was then the finest church edifice on the islands.” (Coan)

The name of the church is derived from the forest, Haili Kulamanu, (Paradise of the Birds) from which most of the ohia wood was cut, located 6 to 8 miles southwest of the church. The Hawaiians hewed the wood in the forest, then hauled it to the mission with drag ropes. (NPS)

November 7, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

250 Years Ago … Slaves in the Revolutionary War

In the 15th century, Portugal became the first European nation to take significant part in African slave trading. By the 1480s, Portuguese ships were already transporting Africans for use as slaves on the sugar plantations in the Cape Verde and Madeira islands in the eastern Atlantic. (Britannica)

By the 16th century, the Portuguese dominated the early trans-Atlantic slave trade on the African coast. As a result, other European nations first gained access to enslaved Africans through privateering during wars with the Portuguese, rather than through direct trade.

When English, Dutch or French privateers captured Portuguese ships during Atlantic maritime conflicts, they often found enslaved Africans on these ships, as well as Atlantic trade goods, and they sent these captives to work in their own colonies. (LDHI, College of Charleston)

When Portuguese, and later their European competitors, found that peaceful commercial relations alone did not generate enough enslaved Africans to fill the growing demands of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, they formed military alliances with certain African groups against their enemies. This encouraged more extensive warfare to produce captives for trading. (LDHI, College of Charleston)

The Portuguese developed a trading relationship with the Kingdom of Kongo, which existed from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries in what is now Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Civil War within Kongo during the trans-Atlantic slave trade would lead to many of its subjects becoming captives traded to the Portuguese. (LDHI, College of Charleston)

The first Africans in Virginia in the 17th century came from the Kongo/Angola regions of West Central Africa. They were part of a large system established by the Portuguese in Africa to capture and supply slaves to the Spanish colonies in Central and South America. (Marks)

The first Africans in English North America were those pirated in 1619 by the White Lion and the Treasurer from the Spanish frigate San Juan Bautista in July, and delivered to Jamestown six weeks later at the latter end of August.

American Revolution

Slave resistance escalated along with colonial struggles for liberty.

In Georgia, a group of enslaved men, women and children took advantage of the confusion created by the Stamp Act by fleeing into the swamps and managed to elude capture for four years – prompting the Georgia assembly to send a detachment of militia after them. (PBS)

By 1775 more than a half-million African Americans, most of them enslaved, were living in the 13 colonies. Both the British and the colonists believed that slaves could serve an important role during the revolution.

African American soldiers served with valor at the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill.

In April 1775, Lord Dunmore (1732-1809), the royal governor of Virginia, threatened that he would proclaim liberty to the slaves and reduce Williamsburg to ashes if the colonists resorted to force against British authority.

In November, he promised freedom to all slaves belonging to rebels who would join “His Majesty’s Troops … for the more speedily reducing the Colony to a proper sense of their duty….”

Some eight hundred slaves joined British forces, some wearing the emblem “Liberty to the Slaves.” (University of Houston)

In November 1775, the American Congress decided to exclude blacks from future enlistment out of a sensitivity to the opinion of southern slave holders. But Lord Dunmore’s promise of freedom to slaves who enlisted in the British army led Congress reluctantly to reverse its decision, fearful that black soldiers might join the redcoats. (University of Houston)

When the Declaration of Independence was written in 1776, people of African descent made up approximately one-fifth of the population of the new United States of America.

The vast majority of them were enslaved, many by Revolutionaries. Other Revolutionaries, while not holding people as property themselves, profited indirectly from the system. (Museum of the American Revolution)

African Americans played an important role in the revolution. They fought at Fort Ticonderoga and the Battle of Bunker Hill.

A slave helped row Washington across the Delaware.

Altogether, some 5,000 free blacks and slaves served in the Continental army during the Revolution. By 1778, many states, including Virginia, granted freedom to slaves who served in the Revolutionary war. (University of Houston)

Most black soldiers were scattered throughout the Continental Army in integrated infantry regiments, where they were often assigned to support roles as wagoners, cooks, waiters or artisans. Several all-black units, commanded by white officers, also were formed and saw action against the British. (Jamestown)

Unlike the Continental Army, the Navy recruited both free and enslaved blacks from the very start of the Revolutionary War – partly out of desperation for seamen of any color, and partly because many blacks were already experienced sailors, having served in British and state navies, as well as on merchant vessels in the North and the South.

Although Black seamen performed a range of duties, usually the most menial ones, they were particularly valued as pilots. Others served as shipyard carpenters and laborers.

Both Maryland’s and Virginia’s navies made extensive use of blacks, even purchasing slaves specifically for wartime naval service. Virginia’s state commissioner noted that it was cheaper to hire blacks than whites, and that whites could get exemption from military service by substituting a slave.

Many royal naval vessels were piloted by blacks – some of them runaways, other enslaved to loyalist masters, and still others pressed into service.

During the Revolutionary War, most enslaved Africans believed that a British victory would bring them freedom. An estimated 100,000 took advantage of the disruption caused by the war and escaped from bondage, many of them making their way to the British forces. Others fled to Canada, Florida, or Indian lands. Thomas Jefferson believed that Virginia lost 30,000 slaves in one year alone. (PBS)

Possibly a quarter of the slaves who escaped to the British made their way onto ships, some signing onto the ships’ crews or joining marauding expeditions of bandits commonly referred to as “Banditti.” (PBS)

Others ran away to join the patriot militias or Continental army. Washington and other military officers received numerous requests to recover runways who had enlisted.

The American Revolution had profound effects on the institution of slavery.

Several thousand slaves won their freedom by serving on either side of the War of Independence. As a result of the Revolution, a surprising number of slaves were released from slavery, while thousands of others freed themselves by running away.

In the late 1770s, dwindling manpower forced George Washington to reconsider his original decision to ban Black people from the Continental Army. So in 1778, a Rhode Island legislature declared that both free and enslaved Black people could serve. To attract the latter, the Patriots promised freedom at the end of service. (history-com)

In October 1781, as Patriot and French ground forces and the French fleet surrounded Cornwallis’ men at Yorktown, Virginia, the British sent their black allies to face death between the battle lines.

In November 1782, Britain and America signed a provisional treaty granting the former colonies their independence.

Although the rise of the free black population is one of the most notable achievements of the Revolutionary Era, it is important to note that the overall impact of the Revolution on slavery had negative consequences.

In rice-growing regions of South Carolina and Georgia, the patriot victory confirmed the power of the master class. Doubts about slavery and legal modifications that occurred in the North and Upper South never took serious hold among whites in the Lower South. Even in Virginia, the move toward freeing some slaves was made more difficult by new legal restrictions in 1792.

In the North, where slavery was on its way out, racism still persisted, as in a Massachusetts law of 1786 that prohibited whites from legally marrying African Americans, Indians, or people of mixed race.

The Revolution clearly had a mixed impact on slavery and contradictory meanings for African Americans. It failed to reconcile slavery with these new egalitarian republican societies, a tension that eventually boiled over in the 1830s and 1840s and effectively tore the nation in two in the 1850s and 1860s. (Lumen Learning)

Click the following link to a general summary about Slaves in the Revolutionary War:

Click to access Slaves-in-the-Revolutionary-War-SAR-RT.pdf

Click to access Slaves-in-the-Revolutionary-War.pdf

November 6, 2025 by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Aikapu

Fornander writes that prior to the period of Pā‘ao “… the kapus (forbidden actions) were few and the ceremonials easy; that human sacrifices were not practiced, and cannibalism unknown; and that government was more of a patriarchal than of a regal nature.”

Pā‘ao is said to have been a priest, as well as a chief and navigator, who arrived in the island of Hawai‘i as early as in the twelfth or thirteenth century (many say he was from Tahiti.)

Pā‘ao is reported to have introduced (or, at least expanded upon) a religious and political code in old Hawai`i, collectively called the kapu system. This forbid many things and demanded many more, with many infractions being punishable by death.

One of the most fundamental of this type of prohibition forbade men and women from eating together and also prohibited women from eating certain foods – ʻaikapu (to eat according to the restrictions of the kapu.)

The ʻaikapu is a belief in which males and females are separated in the act of eating; males being laʻa or ‘sacred,’ and females haumia or ‘defiling’ (by virtue of menstruation.)

Since, in this context, eating is for men a sacrifice to the male akua (god) Lono, it must be done apart from anything defiling, especially women. Thus, men prepared the food in separate ovens, one for the men and another for the women, and built separate eating houses for each.

“The kahuna suggested that the new ʻaikapu religion should also require that four nights of each lunar month be set aside for special worship of the four major male akua, Ku, Lono, Kane and Kanaloa. On these nights it was kapu for men to sleep with their wahine. Moreover, they should be at the heiau (temple) services on these nights.” (Edith Kanaka‘ole Foundation and Lilikalā Kame‘eleihiwa)

“Under ʻaikapu, certain foods, because of their male symbolism, also are forbidden to women, including pig, coconuts, bananas, and some red fish.”(Edith Kanaka‘ole Foundation and Lilikalā Kame‘eleihiwa)

“The custom of the tabu upon free eating was kept up because in old days it was believed that the ruler who did not proclaim the tabu had not long to rule. If he attempted to continue the practice of free eating he was quickly disinherited.”

“It was regarded as an impious act practiced by those alone who did not believe in a god. Such people were looked upon as lower than slaves. The chief who kept up the ancient tabu was known as a worshiper of the god, one who would live a long life protected by Ku and Lono.”

“He would be like a ward of Kane and Kanaloa, sheltered within the tabu. The tabu eating was a fixed law for chiefs and commoners, not because they would die by eating tabu things, but in order to keep a distinction between things permissible to all people and those dedicated to the gods.”

“The tabu of the chief and the eating tabu were different in character. The eating tabu belonged to the tabus of the gods; it was forbidden by the god and held sacred by all. It was this tabu that gave the chiefs their high station.” (Kamakau)

If a woman was clearly detected in the act of eating any of these things, as well as a number of other articles that were tabu, which I have not enumerated, she was put to death. (Malo)

Certain places were set apart for the husband’s sole and exclusive use; such were the sanctuary in which he worshipped and the eating-house in which he took his food.

The wife might not enter these places while her husband was worshipping or while he was eating; nor might she enter the sanctuary or eating-house of another man; and if she did so she must suffer the penalty of death, if her action was discovered. (Malo)

Early visitors to the Islands also wrote of times that the ʻaikapu was broken (but not with consent – it was broken as a practice of some women.)

Ellis, on Captain Cook’s voyage noted, “The women were not averse to eating with us, though the men were present, and would frequently indulge themselves with pork, plantains and coco nuts, when secure from being seen by them.” (Ellis’s Authentic Narrative, 1788)

Likewise Samwell (also on Cook’s voyage) noted, “While they (women) were on board the ships with us they would never touch any food or ripe plantains except privately & by stealth, but then they would eat very hearty of both & seemed very fond of them”. (Samwell; Sahlins)

But there were times ʻaikapu prohibitions were not invoked and women were free to eat with men, as well as enjoy the forbidden food – ʻainoa (to eat freely, without regarding the kapu.)

“In old days the period of mourning at the death of a ruling chief who had been greatly beloved was a time of license. The women were allowed to enter the heiau, to eat bananas, coconuts and pork, and to climb over the sacred places.” (Kamakau)

“Free eating followed the death of the ruling chief; after the period of mourning was over the new ruler placed the land under a new tabu following old lines. (Kamakau)

Following the death of Kamehameha I in 1819, Liholiho assented and became ruling chief with the title Kamehameha II and Kaʻahumanu, co-ruler with the title kuhina nui.

Kaʻahumanu, made a plea for religious tolerance, saying: “If you wish to continue to observe (Kamehameha’s) laws, it is well and we will not molest you. But as for me and my people we intend to be free from the tabus.”

“We intend that the husband’s food and the wife’s food shall be cooked in the same oven and that they shall be permitted to eat out of the same calabash. We intend to eat pork and bananas and coconuts. If you think differently you are at liberty to do so; but for me and my people we are resolved to be free. Let us henceforth disregard tabu.”

Keōpūolani, another of Kamehameha I’s wives, was the highest ranking chief of the ruling family in the kingdom during her lifetime. She was a niʻaupiʻo chief, and looked upon as divine; her kapu, equal to those of the gods. (Mookini) Giving up the ʻaikapu (and with it the kapu system) meant her traditional power and rank would be lost.

Never-the-less, symbolically to her son, Liholiho, the new King of the Islands, she put her hand to her mouth as a sign for free eating. Then she ate with Kauikeaouli, and it was through her influence that the eating tabu was freed. Liholiho permitted this, but refrained from any violation of the kapu himself. (Kuykendall)

Keōpūolani ate coconuts which were tabu to women and took food with the men, saying, “He who guarded the god is dead, and it is right that we should eat together freely.” (Kamakau)

The ʻainoa following Kamehameha’s death continued and the ʻaikapu was not put into place – effectively ending the centuries-old kapu system.

Some have suggested it was the missionaries that ended the kapu that disrupted the social/political system in the Islands; that is not true. The American Protestant missionaries did not arrive in the Islands until the next year (April 4, 1820.) The Hawaiians ended their centuries’ long social/political system.

Sybil Bingham’s Journal entry for March 30, 1820, at the first landing of the Pioneer Company of missionaries, clearly notes the kapu was overturned and the heiau destroyed before the American Protestant missionaries arrived.

“March 30th, 1820. – Memorable day – a day which brings us in full view of that dark pagan land so long the object of our most interested thoughts. Between twelve and one this morning, the word was from Thomas who was up watching, ‘land appears’. When the watch at four was called, Honoree (Honoli‘i) came down saying, ‘Owhyhee sight!’”

“There was but little sleep. When the day afforded more light than the moon we were all out, and judge you, if possible, what sensation filled our breasts as we fixed our eyes upon the lofty mountains of Owhyhee!”

“O! it would be in vain to paint them. I attempt it not. A fair wind carried us by different parts of the island near enough to discern its verdure, here and there a cataract rushing down the bold precipice—some huts, natives and smoke.”

“I would I could put my feelings, for a little season, into your bosoms. No boats coming off as usual, Capt. B— thought it advisable to send ashore to inquire into the state of things, and where he might find the king.”

“Our good Thomas and Honoree, with Mr. Hunnewell and a few hands, set off. Our hearts beat high, and each countenance spoke the deep interest felt as we crowded around our messengers at their return.”

“With almost breathless impatience to make the communication, they leap on board and say, Tamaahmaah is dead!”

“The government is settled in the hands of his son Keehoreeho-Krimokoo is principal chief—the taboo system is no more–men and women eat together!—the idol gods are burned !!”

“How did we listen! What could we say? The Lord has gone before us and we wait to see what He has for us to do.”