Images of Old Hawaiʻi

by Peter T Young 1 Comment

Aikapu

Fornander writes that prior to the period of Pā‘ao “… the kapus (forbidden actions) were few and the ceremonials easy; that human sacrifices were not practiced, and cannibalism unknown; and that government was more of a patriarchal than of a regal nature.”

Pā‘ao is said to have been a priest, as well as a chief and navigator, who arrived in the island of Hawai‘i as early as in the twelfth or thirteenth century (many say he was from Tahiti.)

Pā‘ao is reported to have introduced (or, at least expanded upon) a religious and political code in old Hawai`i, collectively called the kapu system. This forbid many things and demanded many more, with many infractions being punishable by death.

One of the most fundamental of this type of prohibition forbade men and women from eating together and also prohibited women from eating certain foods – ʻaikapu (to eat according to the restrictions of the kapu.)

The ʻaikapu is a belief in which males and females are separated in the act of eating; males being laʻa or ‘sacred,’ and females haumia or ‘defiling’ (by virtue of menstruation.)

Since, in this context, eating is for men a sacrifice to the male akua (god) Lono, it must be done apart from anything defiling, especially women. Thus, men prepared the food in separate ovens, one for the men and another for the women, and built separate eating houses for each.

“The kahuna suggested that the new ʻaikapu religion should also require that four nights of each lunar month be set aside for special worship of the four major male akua, Ku, Lono, Kane and Kanaloa. On these nights it was kapu for men to sleep with their wahine. Moreover, they should be at the heiau (temple) services on these nights.” (Edith Kanaka‘ole Foundation and Lilikalā Kame‘eleihiwa)

“Under ʻaikapu, certain foods, because of their male symbolism, also are forbidden to women, including pig, coconuts, bananas, and some red fish.”(Edith Kanaka‘ole Foundation and Lilikalā Kame‘eleihiwa)

“The custom of the tabu upon free eating was kept up because in old days it was believed that the ruler who did not proclaim the tabu had not long to rule. If he attempted to continue the practice of free eating he was quickly disinherited.”

“It was regarded as an impious act practiced by those alone who did not believe in a god. Such people were looked upon as lower than slaves. The chief who kept up the ancient tabu was known as a worshiper of the god, one who would live a long life protected by Ku and Lono.”

“He would be like a ward of Kane and Kanaloa, sheltered within the tabu. The tabu eating was a fixed law for chiefs and commoners, not because they would die by eating tabu things, but in order to keep a distinction between things permissible to all people and those dedicated to the gods.”

“The tabu of the chief and the eating tabu were different in character. The eating tabu belonged to the tabus of the gods; it was forbidden by the god and held sacred by all. It was this tabu that gave the chiefs their high station.” (Kamakau)

If a woman was clearly detected in the act of eating any of these things, as well as a number of other articles that were tabu, which I have not enumerated, she was put to death. (Malo)

Certain places were set apart for the husband’s sole and exclusive use; such were the sanctuary in which he worshipped and the eating-house in which he took his food.

The wife might not enter these places while her husband was worshipping or while he was eating; nor might she enter the sanctuary or eating-house of another man; and if she did so she must suffer the penalty of death, if her action was discovered. (Malo)

Early visitors to the Islands also wrote of times that the ʻaikapu was broken (but not with consent – it was broken as a practice of some women.)

Ellis, on Captain Cook’s voyage noted, “The women were not averse to eating with us, though the men were present, and would frequently indulge themselves with pork, plantains and coco nuts, when secure from being seen by them.” (Ellis’s Authentic Narrative, 1788)

Likewise Samwell (also on Cook’s voyage) noted, “While they (women) were on board the ships with us they would never touch any food or ripe plantains except privately & by stealth, but then they would eat very hearty of both & seemed very fond of them”. (Samwell; Sahlins)

But there were times ʻaikapu prohibitions were not invoked and women were free to eat with men, as well as enjoy the forbidden food – ʻainoa (to eat freely, without regarding the kapu.)

“In old days the period of mourning at the death of a ruling chief who had been greatly beloved was a time of license. The women were allowed to enter the heiau, to eat bananas, coconuts and pork, and to climb over the sacred places.” (Kamakau)

“Free eating followed the death of the ruling chief; after the period of mourning was over the new ruler placed the land under a new tabu following old lines. (Kamakau)

Following the death of Kamehameha I in 1819, Liholiho assented and became ruling chief with the title Kamehameha II and Kaʻahumanu, co-ruler with the title kuhina nui.

Kaʻahumanu, made a plea for religious tolerance, saying: “If you wish to continue to observe (Kamehameha’s) laws, it is well and we will not molest you. But as for me and my people we intend to be free from the tabus.”

“We intend that the husband’s food and the wife’s food shall be cooked in the same oven and that they shall be permitted to eat out of the same calabash. We intend to eat pork and bananas and coconuts. If you think differently you are at liberty to do so; but for me and my people we are resolved to be free. Let us henceforth disregard tabu.”

Keōpūolani, another of Kamehameha I’s wives, was the highest ranking chief of the ruling family in the kingdom during her lifetime. She was a niʻaupiʻo chief, and looked upon as divine; her kapu, equal to those of the gods. (Mookini) Giving up the ʻaikapu (and with it the kapu system) meant her traditional power and rank would be lost.

Never-the-less, symbolically to her son, Liholiho, the new King of the Islands, she put her hand to her mouth as a sign for free eating. Then she ate with Kauikeaouli, and it was through her influence that the eating tabu was freed. Liholiho permitted this, but refrained from any violation of the kapu himself. (Kuykendall)

Keōpūolani ate coconuts which were tabu to women and took food with the men, saying, “He who guarded the god is dead, and it is right that we should eat together freely.” (Kamakau)

The ʻainoa following Kamehameha’s death continued and the ʻaikapu was not put into place – effectively ending the centuries-old kapu system.

Some have suggested it was the missionaries that ended the kapu that disrupted the social/political system in the Islands; that is not true. The American Protestant missionaries did not arrive in the Islands until the next year (April 4, 1820.) The Hawaiians ended their centuries’ long social/political system.

Sybil Bingham’s Journal entry for March 30, 1820, at the first landing of the Pioneer Company of missionaries, clearly notes the kapu was overturned and the heiau destroyed before the American Protestant missionaries arrived.

“March 30th, 1820. – Memorable day – a day which brings us in full view of that dark pagan land so long the object of our most interested thoughts. Between twelve and one this morning, the word was from Thomas who was up watching, ‘land appears’. When the watch at four was called, Honoree (Honoli‘i) came down saying, ‘Owhyhee sight!’”

“There was but little sleep. When the day afforded more light than the moon we were all out, and judge you, if possible, what sensation filled our breasts as we fixed our eyes upon the lofty mountains of Owhyhee!”

“O! it would be in vain to paint them. I attempt it not. A fair wind carried us by different parts of the island near enough to discern its verdure, here and there a cataract rushing down the bold precipice—some huts, natives and smoke.”

“I would I could put my feelings, for a little season, into your bosoms. No boats coming off as usual, Capt. B— thought it advisable to send ashore to inquire into the state of things, and where he might find the king.”

“Our good Thomas and Honoree, with Mr. Hunnewell and a few hands, set off. Our hearts beat high, and each countenance spoke the deep interest felt as we crowded around our messengers at their return.”

“With almost breathless impatience to make the communication, they leap on board and say, Tamaahmaah is dead!”

“The government is settled in the hands of his son Keehoreeho-Krimokoo is principal chief—the taboo system is no more–men and women eat together!—the idol gods are burned !!”

“How did we listen! What could we say? The Lord has gone before us and we wait to see what He has for us to do.”

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1804

Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was a Founding Father of the United States (signer of the US Declaration of Independence,) chief of staff to General Washington, one of the most influential interpreters and promoters of the Constitution and the founder of the nation’s financial system (and first Secretary of the Treasury.)

In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential electors had two votes, which they were to cast for different men. The one who received most votes would become President; the second-most would be Vice President. John Adams became President and Thomas Jefferson Vice President.

In the 1800 election, Jefferson and Aaron Burr (February 6, 1756 – September 14, 1836) received an equal number of votes; Adams was beat. Following a constitutional procedure, the US House of Representatives held a vote to determine the winner. After 35 votes with neither receiving a majority, on the 36th vote, Hamilton put his support behind Jefferson; Jefferson finally won, Burr was VP.

When it became clear that Jefferson would drop Burr from his ticket in the 1804 election, Burr ran for governor of New York. Hamilton campaigned vigorously against him. Morgan Lewis, assisted by Hamilton, defeated Burr.

Hamilton and Burr did not like each other. Hamilton had called Burr “a dangerous man, and one who ought not to be trusted with the reins of government … (and) expressed … still more despicable opinion” of Burr.

Burr demanded a “prompt and unqualified” denial or an immediate apology. Hamilton did neither. Burr insisted that they settle the dispute according to the code of honor.

Shortly after 7 o’clock on the morning of July 11, 1804, Burr and Hamilton met on a dueling ground in New Jersey, across the Hudson River from New York. It was the exact spot where Hamilton’s eldest son Philip had died in earlier duel.

After Hamilton and Burr took their positions ten paces apart, Hamilton raised his pistol on the command to “Present!” and fired; his shot struck a tree a few feet to Burr’s side. Then Burr fired. His shot struck Hamilton in the right side and passed through his liver. Hamilton died the following day. (U of Houston)

The death of Hamilton, however, ended Burr’s political career. President Jefferson dropped him from the ticket for the 1804 presidential election, and he never held office again.

OK, that was there; what was happening in the Islands?

In 1795, Kamehameha’s final battle of conquest took place on Oʻahu. Kamehameha landed his fleet and disembarked his army on Oʻahu, extending from Waiʻalae to Waikīkī. … he marched up the Nuʻuanu valley, where Kalanikūpule had posted his forces. (Fornander)

At Puiwa the hostile forces met, and for a while the victory was hotly contested; but the superiority of Kamehameha’s artillery, the number of his guns and the better practice of his soldiers, soon turned the day in his favor, and the defeat of the Oʻahu forces became an accelerated rout and a promiscuous slaughter. (Fornander) Estimates for losses in the battle of Nuʻuanu (1795) ranged up to 10,000. (Schmitt)

Then, Kamehameha looked to conquer the last kingdom, Kauaʻi, which was under the control of Kaumualiʻi. (In Europe, in 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of France.)

In 1804, Keʻeaumoku (father of Kaʻahumanu (favorite wife of Kamehameha) and a staunch supporter, one of the great chiefs and the first among the war leaders of Kamehameha (one of his “Kona Uncles) died.

That same year (also about the time of the US expansion with the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark “Corps of Discovery Expedition,”) King Kamehameha I moved his capital from Lāhainā, Maui to Waikīkī, then Honolulu on O‘ahu, and planned an attack on Kaua‘i. Kamehameha’s forces for this second invasion attempt included about 7,000-Hawaiians along with about 50-foreigners (mostly Europeans.)

The maʻi ‘ōkuʻu (believed to be cholera) struck the islands in about 1804. Some reports note about one-half the population (175,000) died, however, some feel that is quite likely that close to 5,000 Hawaiians died from it. (Schmitt) Weather and sickness thwarted Kamehameha’s invasions of Kauaʻi.

In the face of the threat of a future invasion, in 1810, Kaumuali‘i decided to peacefully unite with Kamehameha and join the rest of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi under single rule.

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by Peter T Young 2 Comments

Charles Furneaux

Charles Furneaux (1835–1913) was born in Boston and became a drawing instructor in that area. For many years he lived in the town of Melrose, Massachusetts.

In 1880, Furneaux came from Boston to Hawaiʻi as a tourist, intending to spend a few months in the Islands. The climate and the scenery appealed to his health and artistic eye, and he decided to remain in the Islands. (Hawaiian Gazette, November 11, 1913)

While living in Honolulu he taught at the private schools Punahou and St. Albans (now known as ʻIolani School.) He spent most of his time (about 25-years) in Hilo.

For many years and until the annexation of Hawaiʻi to the United States he was the American consular agent and United States shipping commissioner at the port of Hilo.

He reported, “A bill is now before the Hawaiian Legislature asking for an appropriation to construct a wharf on the east side of Hilo Bay. A wharf, such as contemplated, would greatly facilitate the loading and unloading of vessels, which, at present, is accomplished by lighters. Hilo Bay affords safe anchorage for the largest class of vessels.”

“In this connection, I may say, it is generally conceded that a diversity of industries will increase the wealth and importance of this island. Hawaiʻi, of which Hilo is the principal port, contains an area of 2,500,000-acres.”

“There are large tracts of unoccupied lands well suited to the culture of coffee, bananas, papayas, pine-apples, water-lemons, and other tropical fruits that would admit of transportation to the United States, where they would undoubtedly find a market. I am fully convinced that the introduction of steam communication will add materially to the importance of Hilo as a commercial port.” (Consular Reports, August 18, 1890)

Furneaux was president of the Hilo Agricultural Society. At a meeting of the group, “President Furneaux read an exhaustive paper on “Banana Culture” which contained much interesting and valuable information regarding various methods of cultivation and corresponding success, which had come to his attention.”

“There is a marked difference between the Hilo banana and the Honolulu banana. The skin of the latter is much tougher and consequently bears transportation easier. The Hilo banana if not properly wrapped becomes bruised and discolored, and unsalable. He suggested that greater care be exercised in the wrapping of fruit shipped from here.” (Hilo Tribune, April 22, 1904)

“Furneaux has had considerable experience in planting coffee and is the owner of some fine coffee lands in Olaʻa. … He noted, “All authorities seem to agree that coffee requires shade … (and) decomposed vegetable matter is one of the most valuable of fertilizers.” (Consular Report)

A successful farmer and responsive diplomat … but, Furneaux is best known as an artist.

His reputation is mainly based on the paintings he created in Hawaiʻi, especially those of erupting volcanoes. The Bishop Museum, the Brooklyn Museum, the Honolulu Museum of Art, ʻIolani Palace and Mount Holyoke College Art Museum (South Hadley, Massachusetts) are among the public collections holding works by Charles Furneaux.

As a painter, Furneaux attained considerable distinction, especially of the Volcano of Kilauea and other Hawaiian volcanoes. He was an intimate friend of the noted painter Jules Tavenier.

Furneaux was well known throughout Hawaiʻi. When the news reached Hilo that the annexation treaty had passed congress and had been signed by the commissioners of the United States and the Republic of Hawaiʻi, Furneaux was the happiest man in the metropolis of the Big Island.

While some of his art were landscapes, many were portraits. Furneaux spent the rest of his life in Hawaiʻi as a painter, teacher and coffee farmer. He died in Hawaiʻi in 1913. A lane in downtown Hilo is named for him.

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Koʻanakoʻa

The name Koʻanakoʻa literally means the settling of coral, referring to Maro’s expansive coral reefs. Another name, Nalukakala, describes surf that arrives in combers, such as the surf that froths over shallow reefs. (PMNM)

In 1820, the ships Maro and Rambler of Nantucket, commanded respectively by Captains Joseph Allen and Benjamin Worth, in company with the Syren of London, rendezvoused at the Sandwich islands.

At this same time, Honolulu was described as a scattered, irregular village of thatched huts, of 3,000 or 4,000-inhabitants. (Maly)

Here they met Captain Winship of the ship O’Cane, a veteran northwest coast merchantman, who informed them that while crossing on his many voyages from the Sandwich Islands to Canton, China, he observed a great number of sperm whales off the coast of Japan. (Allen on the Maro is credited with discovering the “Japan Grounds.”)

One of the principal benefits to the economy of the Islands was the rendezvousing of the Pacific whaling fleets from the US and other countries at the various ports of the islands for many years, and the transshipment of oil and bone from these ports.

By 1820, the calls of whalers at Honolulu were quite frequent. Americans were quick to see the superiority of the islands for recruiting and refitting over other stations in the Pacific, and very soon all the American vessels in the Pacific, and quite a few from other countries, were touching at the islands regularly. (US Commission of Fish and Fisheries, 1901)

It was that year, after his discovery of Gardner Pinnacles, that Captain Joseph Allen on the Maro, sighted and named the reef after his whaling ship, Maro.

Maro Reef has less than one acre of periodically emergent land; at very low tide, only a small coral rubble outcrop of a former island is believed to break above the surface. As a result, Maro supports no terrestrial biota.

In contrast, the shallow water reef system is extensive, covering nearly a half-million acres and is the largest coral reef in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.)

It is also one of the chain’s most ecologically rich shallow water marine ecosystems, with 64-percent coral cover over the entire area, among the highest percentage observed in the Monument.

Unlike the classic ring-shaped atoll, Maro is a complex maze of linear reefs that radiate out from the center like the spokes of a wheel.

The documented marine biota at Maro Reef includes 37-species of corals and 142-species of reef fish. Fish species endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago make up half of all fish recorded here.

Maro’s reefs are intricate and reticulated (like a net or network,) forming a complex network of reef crests, patch reefs and lagoons. Deepwater channels with irregular bottoms cut between these shallow reef structures.

Because the outermost reefs absorb the majority of the energy from the open ocean swells, the innermost reefs and aggregated patch reefs are sheltered and have the characteristics of a true lagoon. Given the structural complexity of this platform, its shallow reefs are poorly charted and largely unexplored. (PMNM)

While Maro Reef has very healthy reefs, it may be ‘on the verge of drowning’ because the reefs are narrow, unconnected, and unprotected from storm waves. Others feel that the health of the corals suggest that Maro Reef is a complicated reef system on a large seamount, living in balance with the elements. (FWS)

As Chair of the Board of the Land and Natural Resources I made the recommendation to the rest of the BLNR (and we then voted unanimously) to impose the most stringent measures to assure protection of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

In helping people understand why, I have referred to my recommendation to impose stringent protective measures and prohibit extraction as the responsibility we share to provide future generations a chance to see what it looks like in a place in the world where you don’t take something.

That action created Refuge rules “To establish a marine refuge in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands for the long-term conservation and protection of the unique coral reef ecosystems and the related marine resources and species, to ensure their conservation and natural character for present and future generations.“ Fishing and other extraction is prohibited.

The BLNR’s action started a process where several others followed with similar stringent protective measures.

Koʻanakoʻa (Maro Reef) is now part of Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a State and Federal (State of Hawaiʻi, Department of the Interior’s US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Commerce Department’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) co-managed marine conservation area.

The monument encompasses nearly 140,000-square miles of the Pacific Ocean – an area larger than all the country’s national parks combined.

On July 30, 2010, Papahanaumokuakea was inscribed as a mixed (natural and cultural) World Heritage Site by the delegates to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO.) It is the first mixed UNESCO World Heritage Site in the US and the second World Heritage Site in Hawaiʻi (Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park was inscribed in 1987.)

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Chiefess Kapiʻolani

“Ever since missionaries arrived (1820,) Kapiʻolani has constantly been situated near them, and for nearly two years has listened to the words of eternal life in her own language.” (Bingham)

In 1822, Naihe and Kapiʻolani (husband and wife) were among the first chiefs to welcome instruction and accept Christianity. Kapiʻolani was the daughter of Keawemauhili, who was the high chief of the district of Hilo (the uncle of Kiwalaʻo.) (Westervelt)

Naihe (the spears) was said to be the national orator or best speaker on government affairs among the chiefs. Kapiʻolani (the-bending-arch-of-heaven) was very intelligent, quick-witted, and fearless.

They were both so influential that they were chosen by Kamehameha, as members of his council of chiefs and were retained by his son Liholiho (later, Kamehameha II.) (Westervelt)

“Kapiʻolani was one or the most distinguished of the female chiefs of the Islands. She was the wife of Naihe, a high chief on the island of Hawaii, who was an early convert, and became one of the most influential Christian chiefs, and one of the ablest counsellors of the missionaries.”

“The conversion of Kapiʻolani, and her elevation in character, is perhaps one of the most delightful instances of the results of missionary labour.” (Lucy Thurston)

“She told the missionaries she had come to strengthen their hearts and help them in their work. They rejoiced in the salutary influence which she exerted in favor of education and reform, an influence felt at once and happily continued when she had returned home.” (Bingham)

In February 1824, Chiefs Kapiʻolani and Naihe helped build a church at Kaʻawaloa, the first church in South Kona, near the site of Captain Cook’s demise. They offered this thatched church and parsonage to the Reverend James Ely and his family.

The Ely family accepted the call and arrived in April 1824. Fourteen years later, the Kaʻawaloa Church was moved to Kepulu in order to increase its accessibility. In 1839, missionary Cochran Forbes, with the aid of Kapiʻolani, began constructing a church of stone, it was called Kealakekua Church.

“Kapiʻolani was early converted to the truth, – applied herself to study, – readily adopted the manners and usages of civilized life, – and soon became distinguished for devoted piety, for intelligence, and for dignity of manners.”

“She took a bold stand against the vices and superstitions of her people, and exerted a decided influence in favour of Christianity.” (Thurston)

She won the cause of Christianity by openly defying the priests of the fire goddess Pele in 1825. In spite of their threats of vengeance she ascended the volcano Mauna-Loa, then clambered down to the great lake of fire – Kilauea – the home of the goddess, and flung into the boiling lava the consecrated ohelo berries which it was sacrilege for a woman to handle. (Tennyson)

Missionary son Sereno Bishop recalls visiting Kapiʻolani’s home at Kaʻawaloa as a boy, noting “I was born there at the house of Mr. and Mrs Ely, only a few rods from the rock where Captain Cook was slain, and where his monument now stands.”

“We often visited Kaʻawaloa, probably twice a year, going by water in a double canoe, generally starting two or three hours before daylight, so as to carry the land breeze a good part of the way.”

“We would run up the little bay, and step ashore upon Cook’s rock, whence it was only a few rods to the nice premises of the good Princess Kapiʻolani. These were prettily thatched cottages on a platform of white masonry which was studded with black pebbles.”

“Kapiʻolani’s quarters were neatly furnished within. She was generally there to receive us with the most cordial hospitality.” (Bishop)

Later, daughter of missionaries, Lucy Thurston wrote, “March 3, 1839 … One morning the three families (Thurston, Andrews and Forbes) started at 6 o’clock to visit the residence of Kapiʻolani, about two miles distant.”

“At six o’clock we arrived at her new stone house. … The rooms were neatly furnished in American style. The floors were carpeted with fine mats, and the windows curtained with light calico. A large thatched house stood in the same yard, the one she formerly occupied, which is now converted into a dining-room.”

“A long table was spread for our refreshment … For the accommodation of her visiters during the night, she had three rooms, furnished with two beds, and three settees.” (Thurston)

So rapid was her improvement in knowledge and character, that the missionaries early styled her the ‘admirable Kapiʻolani,’ and have often remarked, that one could scarcely avoid the belief that she was educated among an enlightened people.”

“In 1826, it was said of her, ‘Kapiʻolani is indeed a mother in Israel,’ and this character she has well sustained for sixteen years.”

“She died on the 5th of May, 1841. In communicating the intelligence, Mr. Forbes writes: ‘The nation has lost one of its brightest ornaments.’”

“’She was confessedly the most decided Christian, the most civilized in her manners, and the most thoroughly read in her Bible, of all the chiefs this nation ever had, and her equal in those respects is not left in the nation. Her last end was one of peace, and gave decided evidence that your missionaries have not laboured in vain.” (Thurston)

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