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April 23, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Kapalilua

“Kona … had three marked areas – Kekaha in the north [from around Honokōhau to Keahualono, the Kona-Kohala Boundary], central Kona, and [Kapalilua] in the south [from Honokua and south to Manukā].” (Cordy)

In Kekaha (a shortened version of Kekaha-wai-‘ole o nā Kona” (waterless Kekaha of the Kona district) in the northern portion of Kona (Maly)) “the lands are increasingly more arid”.

“[T]he central portions [of Kona] had arid shorelines with shallow soil in pockets amidst rocky outcrops and bare lava flows … High rainfall was present ca. 1-2 miles inland, and here soil was thicker … Farther above were the ‘ōhia forests”.

“South of central Kona are the [Kapalilua] lands … These lands are subject to frequent lava flows from Mauna Loa … High cliffs are common along the [Kapalilua] coast.” (Cordy) Desha states that “Kapalilua was a land of starvation.”

“Over the period of several centuries, areas with the richest natural resources became populated and perhaps crowded … the population began expanding to the kona (leeward side) and more remote regions of the island.”

“In Kona, communities were initially established along sheltered bays with access to fresh water and rich marine fisheries. The primary ‘chiefly’ centers of Kona were established at several locations – these being in the Kailua (Kaiakeakua) vicinity, Kahalu‘u-Keauhou, Ka‘awaloa-Kealakekua, and at Hōnaunau.”

“Smaller outlying communities were established further south, in the region traditionally known as Kapalilua, at areas such as Kauhakō-Ho‘okena, Ka‘ohe, Pāpā, Miloli‘i, Kalihi, Honomalino, and Kapu‘a, with even smaller communities at areas in between the large kulana kauhale (village communities).” (Maly)

“In the time of intensive native cultivation, South Kona was planted in zones determined by rainfall and moisture. Near the dry seacoast potatoes were grown in quantity, and coconuts where sand or soil among the lava near the shore favored their growth.”

“Up to 1,000 feet grew small bananas which rarely fruited, and poor cane; from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, they prospered increasingly. From approximately 1,000 to 2,000 feet, breadfruit flourished.”

“Taro was planted dry from an altitude of 1,000 to 3,000 feet. An old method of planting taro in Kona, described to us by Lakalo at Ho‘okena, was to plant the cuttings in the lower, warmer zone where they would start to grow quickly …”

“… and then to transplant them to the higher forest zone where soil was rich and deep and where moisture was ample for their second period of growth, in which their corms are said to have developed to an average of 25 pounds each.” (Handy, Handy & Pukui)

Ellis, part of Captain Cook’s crew verifies the mauka planting, “After ascending part of the hill, which was covered in every direction with plantations of sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, tarrow, plantains, and breadfruit trees, which were by far the largest they had seen, they arrived at a spot of land entirely uncultivated, and overrun with long grass and ferns.”

“At some distance from this were four or five small huts, the habitations of a few poor people, whose business appeared to be to cultivate several plantations of tarrow that probably belonged to some of the arees or principal people.”

“They had nothing to dispose of, but two small fowls, a few roots of tarrow, and a small quantity of poey as they called it, which was a kind of pudding made of potatoes, mashed up with water, and constitutes the principal part of the food of the lower class of people.”

“The soil in this part was light, and of a different kind to that below. Having purchased the fowls and tarrow, they left the huts, and proceeded to the wood, which was about two miles distant, through a considerable tract of waste ground, entirely over-run with long grass, ferns, and the dracaena terminalis …”

“… the foot-path was sometimes pretty good, but in general stony, though not in so great a degree as the lower parts: these stones were evidently the production of the volcano. …”

“As they proceeded, they arrived at a long tract of wild plantain-trees, . which far exceed the cultivated ones in size; they produce fruit like them, but it never arrives at perfection. The path now became very dirty and slippery, the soil being a ruff yellow clay, interspersed with large stones.”

“They saw a variety of trees, one species of which was very tall and large, and its leaves greatly resembled those of the spice-trees of Vandiemen’s Land [Tasmania]; this is the wood of which the natives make their canoes. …”

“The next morning was fixed upon for their return to the ships; but they took a different route to their former one, proceeding nearly in a WNW direction, through innumerable plantations of the paper mulberry-tree, bread-fruit, and plantain-trees, which formed an extensive garden, and rendered the houses which were situated there delightfully pleasant.” (Ellis)

In comparing central Kona to Kapalilua, missionary William Ellis notes, “The northern part, including Kairua, Kearake’kua and Honaunau, contains a dense population, and the sides of the mountain are cultivated to a considerable extent …”

“… but the south part presents a most inhospitable aspect. Its population is thin, consisting principally of fishermen, who cultivate but little land, and that at the distance of from five to seven miles from the shore.” (Ellis)

April 22, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Early Maui Agriculture

“Agriculture is deeply rooted in Maui history and will continue to be an important industry from an economic, social, and environmental perspective.”

“Although the face of Maui agriculture has evolved over the years, the important role it plays in the islands economy, environment, and way of life remains consistent, if not increasingly significant in the light of steady growth and expanding urbanization. Agriculture will continue to gain importance in shaping the form of future growth on Maui.”

“A strong agricultural sector is an important component of a balanced, diversified, and sustainable economy. Agriculture is an integral element of Maui’s economy, and community, cultivating a diversity of jobs, generating tax revenues, and producing a variety of crops for different local and export markets.” (Maui County Dept of Agriculture)

Two early commercial agricultural crops, sugar and pineapple, dominated, and the Baldwins (and others) had a hand in each, as well as the Maui Agricultural Company (which also grew and produced each).

Dwight Baldwin was born on September 29, 1798 to Seth Baldwin (1775 –1832,) (a farmer) and Rhoda Hull Baldwin in Durham, Connecticut, and moved to Durham, New York, in 1804. He was the second of 12 children. (Baldwin Genealogy)

He was introduced by a friend to Charlotte Fowler, daughter of Deacon Solomon Fowler of North Branford, Connecticut, and a few weeks later was married to her on December 3, 1830. Twenty-five days later they set sail with the Fourth Company of missionaries to Hawaiʻi on the ship ‘New England;’ they arrived at Honolulu, June 7, 1831. (Baldwin)

Dwight and Charlotte had eight children: David Dwight (1831–1912), Abigail Charlotte (1833–1913), Charles Fowler (1837–1891), Henry Perrine (1842–1911), Emily Sophronia (1844–1891) and Harriet Melinda (1846–1932). A daughter, Mary Clark died at about 2½ years of age in 1838; a son, Douglas Hoapili, died at almost 3 in 1843.

Between 1836 and 1861 there was an initial flurry of sugar planting and refining throughout Hawaii; however, lack of capital and an adequate market forced many planters out of business.

Henry Perrine Baldwin, the most successful sugar producer of the Hawaiian Islands (Mid Pacific, February 1912,) was born on August 29, 1842 in Lahaina, Maui.

It was Mr. Baldwin’s intention – he was 21 years of age at the time – to earn enough money to enable him to go to Williams College to take a medical course. (His father was a physician.) His youthful ambition to be a doctor was never realized.

Once launched in the sugar industry he continued in it, an increasingly important figure, for the remainder of his life. Baldwin was particularly successful as an agriculturist, a developer of plantations.

Christopher H Lewers founded Waiheʻe sugar plantation on Maui. It the mid-1860s it was managed by Samuel Thomas Alexander. Henry Perrin Baldwin took a ‘Luna’ (foreman) job with Alexander. (HP Baldwin and Alexander grew up together as kids in Lāhainā and became close friends.)

In 1869, Baldwin and Alexander became business partners and bought 12-acres in Hāmākuapoko (an eastern Maui ahupuaʻa (land division.)) (They later formed Alexander & Baldwin, one of Hawai‘i’s ‘Big Five’ companies – and the only Big Five still in Hawai‘i.)

In 1876, with the signing of the Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty, the islands received the final catalyst necessary to drive the Hawaiian sugar industry into the future. The treaty with the United States allowed for duty free admission of Hawaiian sugar, resulting in a substantial increase of profits for island growers.

With this economic boost, growers immediately began increasing cultivation of sugarcane. On Maui, acres cultivated in sugarcane expanded from 5,080 in 1867 to 12,000 in 1880, an increase of 136 percent.

Maui’s Historic Sugar Plantations were Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company (HC&S) (Puunene); Maui Agricultural Company (Paia); Pioneer Mill Company (Lahaina); Wailuku Sugar Company (Wailuku); and Kaeleku Sugar Company (Hana). Maui Island Plan)

“A heavy expansion of Alexander and Baldwin came with the acquisition of control of the Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Co. of Puʻunene, Maui, formerly operated by the late Claus Spreckels.”

“Mr. [HP] Baldwin took personal charge of this plantation in 1902 and made it one of the most successful and productive estates in Hawaii. Today it ranks as one of the world’s finest and most modern sugar plantations.” (Orr)

“As manager of the Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Company, Mr. Baldwin had the satisfaction of seeing it become one of the greatest sugar plantations of the world, with other plantations under the control of his company ranking very high according to their size.” (Mid Pacific, February 1912)

“In 1900 Alexander & Baldwin incorporated as an agency for sugar plantations such as Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company and Maui Agricultural Company, Ltd., an A&B creation and managed by H.A. [Henry “Harry” Alexander] Baldwin.” (Orr)

In 1917 Maui Agricultural Company, Ltd. built the first distillery in the US for producing alcohol from molasses; the plantations vehicles operated on molasses alcohol instead of kerosene or gasoline during World War I. (Orr)

“Mr. [HP] Baldwin married Emily W. Alexander, daughter of Rev. and Mrs. William Patterson Alexander, early missionaries, and a sister of Mr. Baldwin’s partner, S. T. Alexander, at Wailuku, Maui, on April 5, 1870.”

“Eight children were born to them, Harry A Baldwin, Frank F Baldwin, Mrs. Maud (Baldwin) Cooke, Arthur D Baldwin, Dr WD Baldwin, Mrs Charlotte (Baldwin) Rice, Fred Baldwin and AS Baldwin.” (Orr)

“Historically Maui’s second largest industry, pineapple, has also played a large role in forming Maui’s modern day landscape. The pineapple industry began on Maui in 1890 with Dwight D. Baldwin’s Haiku Fruit and Packing Company on the northeast side of the island.”

“West Maui was also cultivated with pineapple in the early 1900s by Baldwin Packers. Within just thirty years, the pineapple industry grew steadily; by 1930, over 28 percent of Maui’s cultivated lands were dedicated to pineapple.” (Maui Island Plan)

Baldwin Packers started pineapple canning in 1914 and at first its cannery was located close to its pineapple fields in the Honolua section. Difficulty in securing labor in the busiest seasons of packing and the distance of the haul from the cannery to Kaʻānapali, which was then its shipping point, made it advisable to secure a location nearer town.

Baldwin Packers pineapple cannery was eventually located at Lāhainā, this addressed transportation (proximity to Mala Wharf) and labor concerns. At Mala, the cannery was eight or ten miles from the fields and the fruit is transported to the plant by rail and truck.

The Baldwins’ growing and canning operations in Lāhainā continued for many decades. However, in 1962 the Baldwins’ east and west Maui holdings and pineapple operations were united when Baldwin Packers merged with Maui Pineapple Company. It was around that time that the Baldwin Packers pineapple cannery in west Maui was closed.

In 1987, the Lāhainā Cannery Mall was built on the same site where the original plant once stood; it was designed to look like a pineapple cannery with the corrugated style and factory-like open conduits inside were adopted for the design.

April 21, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

250 Years Ago … Siege of Boston

Following the battles at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, colonial forces from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island formed a New England army to surround and contain the British forces occupying Boston.

The Siege of Boston was essentially a containment of British forces in Boston laid out by the American militia, later known as the Continental Army on the British held Boston.

Sara Winslow Deming’s journal notes the British were anticipating something, it states, in part (Massachusetts Historical Society),

“On Saterday, ye 15th April [1775] P.M. I had a visit from Mr. Barron. I never saw him with such a countenance. He affected a smiling countenance when he came in. I was glad to see him as ever — I pointed him to a chair, & seated myself, he rose & took the next chair by me, saying “permit me to set by you.”

“I try’d to affect an ease I did not feel, & I tho’t, & still think, that he did the same. Soon however, a gloom spread over his countenance, — after a short silence, he told me, (I have since recolected, somewhat officeously,) that “the light Infantry, & all the Grenidier Companies were drafted from all the reg.rs & were ordered to be ready to attend whatever duty they might be called to at a minutes warning, & you know I am one.”

“And are you ready? Yes. After another short silence, he proceeded, unasked, to tell me many things tho’ I have since tho’t that he would have given direct answers to any questions I might have ask’d, so far as he was let into their secrets – but I ask’d no question of consequence.”

“Several times I saw him catch in his handkerchief the tears that fell from his eyes. Sometimes, there was a silence of several minutes together, both before & after Mr. Deming came in. It was evident, that his soul labor’d under some heavy pressure.”

“Once with very little introduction, he said, ‘I advise you as a friend to stay in Boston – I think it will be the safest place.’”

Following these skirmishes, British forces under General Thomas Gage garrisoned at Boston, Massachusetts Bay. Subsequently, the American militia surrounded the area in an attempt to contain the British forces. Hence, the siege of Boston started on April 19, 1775.

Sara Winslow Deming’s journal notes, in part (Massachusetts Historical Society), “Early on Wednesday the fatal 19th April, before I had quited my chamber, one after another came runing up to tell me that the kings troops had fired upon & killed 8 of our neighbors at Lexington in their way to Concord.”

“All the intelligence of this day was dreadfull. Almost every countenance expressing anxiety & distress. But description fails here. I went to bed about 12 this night having taken but little food thro’ the day; having resolv’d to quit the town before the next setting sun, should life, & limbs be spar’d to me.”

“Towards morning, I fell into a sound sleep from which I was waked by Mr. D.g between 6, & 7 o clock informing me that I was Genl Gage’s prisoner — all egress, & regress being cut off between the town & country.”

“Here again description fails. No words can paint my distress — I feel it at this instant (just 8 weeks after) so sensibly, that I must pause before I can proceed.”

A May 6, 1775 letter from John Andrews to William Barrel describes some of the initial impacts to the residents of Boston at the time of the Siege (Massachusetts Historical Society), “You’ll observe by this, that I am yet in Boston, & here like to remain — three of us charterd a vessell a fortnight since to convey us to Halifax as Sam dont think your city Safe by any means,”

“but the absolute refusal of the Governor to Suffer any merchandize to be carried out the town, had determd me to Stay & take care of my effects, together wth the perswasion of Saml & his wife & Ruthy –“

“the latter being perfectly willing & desirous of going without me, as her peace of mind depends entirely upon his leaving the town; in concequence of which have acquiesed, but am affraid it will be a long time before I Shall See her again, if ever.”

“near half the inhabitants have left the town already, & another quarter, at least, have been waiting for a week past with earnest expectation of getting Passes, which have been dealt out very Sparingly of late, not above two or three procur’d of a day, & those with the greatest difficulty.”

“its a fortnight yesterday Since the communication between the town & country was Stop’d, of concequence our eyes have not been bless’d with either vegetables or fresh provisions, how long we Shall continue in this wretched State – God only knows –“

“but that no more blood may be Shed is the earnest wish & prayer of your affectionate friend & Brother.” Jno. Andrews

After that, the course of the siege was littered with small skirmishes and nothing substantial occurred until May 21. The British forces learned that they needed hay for their horses. Hence Gage ordered an expedition to go to Grape Island and bring back hay to Boston.

The Continentals, however, spotted the troops and called for the militia. At first, the armies engaged in shooting over a long distance, but the militia was able to get their hands on a sloop and sailed to Grape island. Once on land, they set fire to the hay barn and essentially destroyed about 80 tons of hay. Consequently, the Continentals cleared out the cattle, sheep and hay from the islands around Boston.

On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the Continental Army learned that the British forces were planning to fortify the nearby unoccupied hills.

This in turn would give them control of the Boston Harbor. Subsequently, the American forces under the command of Colonel William Prescott immediately occupied the hills.

On June 17, 1775, the British forces learned that the Americans had occupied the hills and they launched an attack against them. The battle came to be known as the Battle of Bunker Hill.

Most of the battle took place on an adjacent hill which later came to be known as ‘Breed’s hill’. Even though the British forces were victorious in battle, they suffered heavy casualties.

Following the Battle of Bunker Hill, the siege of Boston essentially became a stalemate, with both sides hesitant to attack.

The Continental Congress formed the new Continental Army on June 14 and General George Washington was named its commander-in-chief on June 15, 1775.

In early July 1775, General George Washington arrived in Cambridge to take charge of the newly established Continental Army. He had the objective of removing the British forces from Boston. To achieve this he worked to fortify the troops and organize the militia into an army.

Subsequently, in October 1775, General Thomas Gage was replaced by General William Howe as commander of the British forces.

Over the course of the siege, both armies had to deal with a harsh winter which resulted in a lack of resources and personnel issues. The winter brought an array of problems for both sides.

The Americans were facing a severe shortage of gunpowder. So much so that the soldiers were handed spears to fight with instead of guns in an event of a British attack. On the other hand, the British forces were facing a huge shortage of wood.

Washington wanted to break the ongoing stalemate. However, to achieve this he needed artillery. In November 1775, he ordered Colonel Henry Knox to bring back artillery captured at Fort Ticonderoga. Knox successfully transported more than 60 tons of captured armament from Fort Ticonderoga back to Boston. These supplies also included more than 55 cannons and they reached Boston by late January 1776.

On February 16 and 18 Washington once again tried to convince his generals to launch an attack against the British troops. However, he received the same answer as before. This was because his generals feared that they had lesser manpower and gunpowder than the British forces.

Moreover, instead of going offensive, they believed that it would be better to take over Dorchester Heights once they had sufficient firepower. In their opinion, this would force the British forces to come out of Boston and off of Noddle’s island and then they would be in the open.

Finally, on March 2, 1776, the Continental Army placed some of the cannons in fortification around Boston. They then bombarded the British forces for two days straight. The artillery was strategically placed at Lechmere Point, Cobble Hill in Cambridge, and Lamb’s Dam in Roxbury.

On the night of March 4, 1776, the Continental Army led by General John Thomas marched to Dorchester Heights and fortified it with the artillery. By morning, they had the artillery pointed towards the Boston Harbor and the city.

Fortification of the heights south of Boston began on the night of March 4 and 5, 1776. On the other side of Boston, in Cambridge, guns bombarded the British-held town as a diversion. Over the next week, the stronghold grew in size and strength.

William Cheever notes in his diary (Massachusetts Historical Society),

5th. [March 1776] Last Night & this morning a very incessant Fireing from 1/2 past 7 in the even’g ’till 6 this morning: without much damage & this day at noon, Gen’l Howe notified that all Persons who intended to follow the Army should give in their names, as he must withdraw his Troops.

The British forces first decided to go on the offensive but soon realized its futility as their cannons could not reach the American forces stationed at a height. Howe then sent troops to dislodge the Continental Army’s guns from Dorchester Heights but a snowstorm hit Boston and that attack never materialized.

The British forces accepted defeat and on March 7. The siege began on April 19, 1775, and went on for 11-months, following which the British forces left the region and sailed to Nova Scotia. The siege of Boston finally ended on March 17, 1776.

Click the following link to a general summary about the Siege of Boston:

Click to access Siege-of-Boston.pdf

April 20, 2025 by Peter T Young 2 Comments

Happy Easter!

Easter, Latin ‘Pascha’, Greek ‘Pascha’, is a principal festival of the Christian church, which celebrates the Resurrection of Jesus Christ on the third day after his Crucifixion.

The earliest recorded observance of an Easter celebration comes from the 2nd century, though the commemoration of Jesus’ Resurrection probably occurred earlier.

The season of Easter is the most important of all liturgical times, which Catholics celebrate as the Lord’s resurrection from the dead, culminating in his Ascension to the Father and sending of the Holy Spirit upon the Church.

In the Christian calendar, Easter follows Lent, the period of 40 days (not counting Sundays) before Easter, which traditionally is observed by acts of penance and fasting.

Easter is immediately preceded by Holy Week, which includes Maundy Thursday, the commemoration of Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples; Good Friday, the day of his Crucifixion; and Holy Saturday, the transition between Crucifixion and Resurrection.

The use of painted and decorated Easter eggs was first recorded in the 13th century. The custom of associating a rabbit or bunny with Easter arose in Protestant areas in Europe in the 17th century but did not become common until the 19th century.

April 19, 2025 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

250 Years Ago … Shot Heard Round the World

British victory in the Seven Years War (1756-63) sowed the seeds of the American revolt. It freed the colonists from the need for protection against the French threat on their frontier. It also gave free rein to the forces working for independence.

The British wanted to increase taxes and make the colonies pay for their defense. The colonists argued that only their own assemblies, and not the British parliament, had a right to levy taxes. (British National Army Museum)

In 1775 there were about 7,000 British redcoats in America, with around 4,000 in Massachusetts itself. The royally appointed governor, Thomas Gage, had been granted broadly expanded powers.

Rebellion was in the air.

Acting on intelligence that the militia were stockpiling weapons, Gage ordered British Lieutenant-Colonel Francis Smith to march to Concord and seize the arms. Smith commanded the 800-strong force, drawn from several regiments, that was sent to seize the arms. An officer with 12 years’ colonial experience, Smith had served in America since 1767.

The rebel intelligence network suggested that the British aim in Lexington was to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock, two of the most prominent Patriot leaders, but the size of the British army force was large enough to suggest they had bigger goals in mind.

The British soldiers and rebel militiamen raced to Lexington during the night; they confronted each other at Lexington Green – a village common area – just as the sun was rising on the morning of April 19. Captain John Parker, a veteran of the Seven Years’ War, led a contingent of 80 Lexington militiamen, known as minute men because they had to be ready to fight at a minute’s notice.

Most of the militiamen were farmers or tradesmen. Non-uniformed, they were armed with a variety of firearms including muskets and fowling pieces. (British National Army Museum)

Years later, one of the participants recalled Parker’s words right before the deadly skirmish: “Stand your ground; don’t fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here.”

On April 19, 1775, initial skirmishes between British regulars and American Patriots marked the beginning of the American Revolution.

… at 5 o’clock we arrived there and saw a number of People, I believe between 2 and 300 … we still continued advancing, keeping prepared against an attack tho’ without intending to attack them …

… they fired one or two shots, upon which our Men without any orders rushed in upon them, fired and put ‘em to flight; several of them were killed. (Diary of Lt. John Barker, Library of Congress)

It is unclear who fired the first shot.

A skirmish ensued, during which eight militiamen were killed and only one British soldier wounded.

After order was restored, the British soldiers began the march to Concord, where militias from Concord and the nearby town of Lincoln were waiting. After the British found and destroyed rebel weapons caches, they squared off against the colonial forces at the North Bridge. Outnumbered and outmaneuvered, the British soldiers broke rank and fled, handing the stunned colonists a victory. (Khan Academy)

The march back to Boston was a genuine ordeal for the British, with Americans continually firing on them from behind roadside houses, barns, trees, and stone walls. This experience established guerrilla warfare as the colonists’ best defense strategy against the British.

Total losses were British 273, American 95. The Battles of Lexington and Concord confirmed the alienation between the majority of colonists and the mother country, and it roused New Englanders to join forces and begin the Siege of Boston, resulting in its evacuation by the British the following March. (Britannica)

Within a week, 16,000 men from the four New England colonies formed a siege army outside British-occupied Boston. In June, the Continental Congress took over the New England army, creating a national force, the Continental Army. Thereafter, men throughout America took up arms. It seemed to the British regulars that every able-bodied American male had become a soldier. (Smithsonian, Ferling)

Following this, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence and it was signed by 56-members of the Congress (1776.)

The next eight years (1775-1783) war was waging on the eastern side of the continent. The main result was an American victory and European recognition of the independence of the United States.

Some 100,000 men served in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. Probably twice that number soldiered as militiamen, for the most part defending the home front, functioning as a police force and occasionally engaging in enemy surveillance. (Smithsonian, Ferling) Though never more than 48,000 served at a time. (Military-com, Stilwell)

The formal end of the war did not occur until the Treaty of Paris and the Treaties of Versailles were signed on September 3, 1783 and recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded roughly by what is now Canada to the north, Florida to the south, and the Mississippi River to the west.

The last British troops left New York City on November 25, 1783, and the US Congress of the Confederation ratified the Paris treaty on January 14, 1784.

Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. (Veterans Museum)

Lexington and Concord led many Americans to support the ‘revolution’. For John Adams, these battles were the moment ‘the Die was cast, the Rubicon crossed’. They also showed that American citizen soldiers could stand up to redcoats; something previously doubted by many on both sides.

It was the turning point in the future of the continent and an everlasting change in what would become the United States.

It was Ralph Waldo Emerson who coined the phrase ‘Shot Heard Round the World’ and used it his 1837 poem, ‘Concord Hymn,’ that he wrote for the dedication of a battle monument at the site of the North Bridge.

Click the following link to a general summary about Lexington and Concord – “The Shot Heard Round the World”:

Click to access Shot-Heard-Round-the-World.pdf

Click to access Lexington-and-Concord-–-‘The-Shot-Heard-Round-the-World-SAR-RT.pdf