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January 6, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Buffalo Soldiers Trail

In early 1911, geologist named Thomas A Jaggar convinced Frank A Perret, a world-famous American volcanologist he had met on Vesuvius Volcano in Italy, to travel to Hawai‘i to begin the observations of Kīlauea’s volcanic activity.

From July to October 1911, Perret conducted experiments and documented the lava lake activity within Kïlauea’s Halema‘uma‘u Crater, paving the way for Jaggar to pursue his life’s goal of using multiple scientific approaches and all available tools for the observation and measurement of volcanoes and earthquakes.

In 1911, the first scientific laboratory at Kilauea consisted of a crude wooden shack constructed on the edge of Halema‘uma‘u that was called the Technology Station. The next year saw the construction by Jaggar of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory.

When Jaggar came to the Islands, he joined the efforts of George Lycurgus (operator of the Volcano House) and newspaperman Lorrin Andrews Thurston who were working to have the Mauna Loa and Kilauea Volcanoes area made into a National Park.

Jaggar had tried to lead several expeditions to the top of Mauna Loa in 1914 but was unsuccessful due to the elevation (13,678 feet) and the harsh conditions: rough lava, violent winds, noxious fumes, shifting weather, extreme temperatures and a lack of shelter, water and food. (Takara)

In September 1915, Jaggar, Thurston and a US Army representative conducted a survey to determine a route for a trail up Mauna Loa.

The following month, a local paper noted, “Soldiers Building Mountain Trail. Negro soldiers of the Twenty-fifth Infantry to the number of 150 are at work constructing a trail from near the Volcano House to the summit of Mauna Loa.”

“It is estimated that three or four weeks will be devoted to this work. The soldiers are doing the work as a part of their vacation exercises.” (Maui News, October 29, 1915)

Immediately after the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, many African Americans found themselves newly freed from bondage. In 1866, congress created four military regiments made up of Black troops, the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry – they were known colloquially as the Buffalo Soldiers. (NPS)

“Although Native Americans bestowed the name upon the troopers, there are differing accounts as to the reason. One account suggests the name was acquired during the 1871 campaign against the Comanches, when Indians referred to the cavalrymen as “Buffalo Soldiers” because of their rugged and tireless marching.”

“Other accounts state that Native Americans bestowed the nickname on the black troopers because they believed the hair of the black cavalrymen resembled the hair of the buffalo.”

“Another suggests that the name was given because of the buffalo-hide coats worn by the soldiers in cold weather. The troopers took the nickname as a sign of respect from Native Americans, who held great reverence for the buffalo, and eventually the Tenth Cavalry adopted the buffalo as part of its regimental crest.” (Plante)

“The generous cooperation of the United States Army has made the trail to the top of Mauna Loa and the rest houses at the top and midway thereto a certainty.” (Hawaiian Gazette, Sep 24, 1915)

“The overpowering feature of the landscape, however, is the immediate foreground to the north and east. The trail up to Red Crater is through ordinary and rather monotonous lava flows; but from the top of the hill there literally bursts into view a scene of most violent volcanic activity that I have seen anywhere.”

“It is similar to the interior of Haleakala crater; and the top of Hualalai, but while those are old and faded, this is fiery red and inky black.” (Hawaiian Gazette, Nov 11, 1915)

“During the past summer [in 1915] the promotion committee and Research Association formulated and presented its plan to the authorities of the County of Hawaii and the newly created Hawaii Publicity Committee …”

“… proposing that these two organizations with the assistance of private subscriptions should furnish the money necessary for the material involved, the work to be done by the county prisoners.”

“The county authorities and the publicity committee each agreed to contribute $500 toward the enterprise. Then the Governor came in with a contribution of $500 from the contingent fund and private subscriptions have been received in excess of $1000.”

“No decision had been arrived at concerning the availability of the county prisoners, however.” (Hawaiian Gazette, Sep 24, 1915) (The practice in Hawai‘i and elsewhere was to use prison labor for public works projects, including road building.)

(Later Territorial law stated, “All prisoners sentenced to imprisonment at hard labor shall be constantly employed for the public benefit, on public roads or other public works or other wise, as the high sheriff, with the approval and subject to the control of the board of prison directors, may deem best.”)

Then the military offered aid in the form of a “tentative proposition that, if transportation was furnished from Honolulu to Hilo and return, Company E of the Twenty-fifth Infantry, consisting of between 140 and 150 men would volunteer to go to Volcano, and do the work of building the trail and erecting the rest houses without further expense to the promoters or enterprise.” (Hawaiian Gazette, Sep 24, 1915)

Building the Buffalo Soldiers Trail (now called Mauna Loa Trail) from the 4,000-ft. summit of Kīlauea to the 13,677-ft. summit of Mauna Loa was no easy task. (NPS)

“The soldiers are constructing a trial three feet wide across the a-a, crushing it down with twelve pound hammers, filling in hollow, cutting down ridges and putting on a finish of fine a-a and earth, quarried along the line or parked in gunny sacks, carried on the men’s backs – in some places being carried as far as a quarter of a mile.”

“The Mauna Loa trail and rest house project is making steady and substantial progress. It must be remembered that it is through a section of territory never before inspected, much less traveled over, except the lower portion thereof, and that only by a few surveyors, cattle men and catchers of wild goats.”

“No one wants to run away with the idea that the job which the men of Company E of the Twenty-fifth Infantry have volunteered to do is all picnic. They are having a picnic all right; but incidentally they are doing a lot of good hard work in a pure pro bono publico spirit.” (Hawaiian Gazette, Nov 11, 1915)

The Buffalo Soldiers built the 18-mile trail to the summit of Mauna Loa. They also built the ten-man Red Hill Cabin and a twelve-horse stable, so scientists could spend extended periods of time studying the volcano.

“[D]uring the period of 1915 to 1921, the trail was managed and maintained by a loose consortium consisting of Hawaii Volcano Research Association, Lorrin Thurston, Hilo businessmen, and Thomas Jaggar, then it was managed by the National Park Service.” (Tuggle)

Between 1930 and 1932, the National Park carried out major improvements and realignments of the Mauna Loa Trail to fall completely within the park boundary. Over the past century, the evolving needs of the National Park and changes in available

technology have resulted in ongoing modifications to the physical footprint of the trail.

The uppermost portion of the original trail footprint has been nearly obliterated since the 1970s by a series of large lava flows in 1975, 1984, and 1985. (Tuggle) (The inspiration and sources to information here came primarily from a study by Myra Tomonari-Tuggle.)

January 5, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Marquesville

James Campbell, who arrived in Hawaiʻi in 1850, ended up in Lāhainā and started a sugar plantation there in 1860 (later known as Pioneer Mill.) He also started to acquire land in Oʻahu, Maui and the island of Hawaiʻi.

In 1876, James Campbell purchased 41,000-acres of ranch land at Honouliuli. Many critics scoffed at the doubtful value of his Honouliuli purchase. But Campbell envisioned supplying the arid area with water and commissioned California well-driller James Ashley to drill a well on his Honouliuli Ranch.

In 1879, Ashley drilled Hawaiʻi’s first artesian well; James Campbell’s vision had made it possible for Hawaiʻi’s people to grow sugar cane on the dry lands of the ʻEwa Plain. When the first well came in at Honouliuli the Hawaiians named it ‘Waianiani’ (crystal waters.) (Nellist)

“After the success of the first artesian well at Honouliuli, Ewa District. Another group of men organized a company in Honolulu. … the new company began work on their first well in Honolulu proper, on the property of Hon. A Marques …”

“This site is located on what was called ‘The Plains,’ near Punahou College. On April 28, 1880, they struck a flowing well, the second well on the island of Oahu and the first well in Honolulu proper.” (McCandless)

A plaque commemorating Honolulu’s pioneer well notes Kalakaua saying, “This Means the Promise of Beauty and Fertility For Thousands of Acres.”

While not at that scale, Marques was seeking water to supply his growing Marquesville complex on Manoa Valley Road (also known as ‘Stonewall Road and later known as Wilder).

In 1879 he bought 27 acres from Alfred Sumter and other purchases in the next few years in the same area were small, usually along ‘Beckwith also to become Wilder, Metcalf, Dole Streets, & Marquesville.’

Marques lived much of his Hawaiian life at 1928 Wilder Avenue (now the site of a small apartment building); Marquesville was generally on the slope below Vancouver Place.

His father was French and Spanish and was a general in the French Army. His mother, of English and Scotch descent, was the daughter of General Cooke of the British Army. Auguste’s boyhood was spent in Morocco, Algiers and the Sahara.

“When asked to what nationality he belongs, Dr. A. Marques replies that he Is a true cosmopolitan”. (Hawaiian Star, March 9, 1899) Marques Auguste Jean Baptiste Marques was born in Toulon, France, on November 17, 1841.

He championed the introduction of Portuguese laborers and “was instrumental in bringing a colony of Portuguese to Honolulu . . . and sold lots on long term credit to encourage them to become home owners.”

The eventual tract (of about 30 acres) was complete by 1880, at a cost of about $10,000. The Bureau of Conveyances shows his selling lot-sized tracts from 1882 to 1899. Between 1885 and 1894, he sold 22 lots, 18 to persons with Portuguese names: from 1895 to 1899, 21 more.

He organized the Theosophical Society in Honolulu in 1883 but allowed a Catholic Church to serve the Portuguese population. Father Clement Evrard, SS.CC., built a wooden chapel dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus located at the corner of Wilder Avenue and Metcalf Street.

At the time, Sacred Heart Parish was an outlying mission (Marquesville mission) of Our Lady of Peace Cathedral in Honolulu. (Sacred Heart Church)

On January 24, 1887, Marques petitioned the Minister of the Board of Education for a school in the Seaview and Metcalf Streets area. He mentioned the area as ‘Marquesville’. He counted 66 children, of whom 37 were of school age.

He noted that ‘a village has been developing at the corner of Beckwith and Metcalf Street[s],’ where there were 22 house owners. At the end of the petition and continuing on a second page are the signatures of all the parents.

Marques was a doctor of science, philanthropist, scientist, musician, teacher, diplomat, and capitalist; and his wife Evelyn (Oliver) was the owner-manager of a downtown shop that encouraged Hawaiian crafts, a suffragette, and occasionally French consul.

He edited the Portuguese language newspaper O Luso Hawaiiano 1885-1888 and taught French at Punahou School. In 1886, Marques went to Russia on a diplomatic mission for King David Kalakaua.

In 1890-1891, he served in the last year of the King’s legislature. He was the Russian consul from 1908 to 1917, the Panamanian consul in 1909, French consul from 1910 to 1929, and of Belgium in 1914. He continued to be Russian consul long after the revolution.

From so much diplomatic representation came many awards and orders of merit, including one from Kalakaua for work on leprosy and one even from Samoa. In 1883, ‘Marquis’ became a Companion of the Loyal Order of Kapiolani.

Marques Street near Punahou School, Honolulu, named for August Jean Baptiste Marques (1841-1929). As with her husband, Mrs. Marques is also remembered by a street name or two.

Across from their home on Wilder Avenue is Artesian Street, commemorating the “pioneer artesian well.” East of Artesian is Evelyn Way, then Oliver Lane. (Lots here is from Bouslog.)

January 3, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

‘We stopped, and trembled’

“Messrs (William) Ellis, (Asa) Thurston, (Artemas) Bishop and (Joseph) Goodrich made a tour round the island of Hawai‘i, examining its various districts, conversing with the natives, and preaching the gospel 130 different times.” (History of ABCFM)

“Hitherto we had travelled close to the sea-shore, in order to visit the most populous villages in the districts through which we had passed. But here receiving information that we should find more inhabitants a few miles inland, than nearer the sea, we thought it best to direct our course towards the mountains.”

Makoa, their guide, “objected strongly to our going thither, as we should most likely be mischievous, and offend Pele or Nahoaarii, gods of the volcano, by plucking the ohelo, (sacred berries,) digging up the sand, or throwing stones into the crater, …”

“… and then they would either rise out of the crater in volumes of smoke, send up large stones to fall upon us and kill us, or cause darkness and rain to overtake us, so that we should never find our way back.”

“We told him we did not apprehend any danger from the gods … If we were determined on going, he said, we must go by ourselves, he would go with us as far Kapapala, the last village at which we should stop, and about twenty miles on this side of it …”

“… from thence he would descend to the sea-shore, and wait till we overtook him. The governor, he said, had told him not to go there, and, if he had not, he should not venture near it, for it was a fearful place. … [W]e proceeded on our way, leaving Makoa to wait for them, and come after us as far as Kapapala, where we expected to spend the night.”

In 1823, they were the first Westerners to visit Kilauea volcano. Ellis describes his first impressions, “After walking some distance over the sunken plain, which in several places sounded hollow under our feet, we at length came to edge of the great crater, where a spectacle, sublime and even appalling, presented itself before us“.

“‘We stopped, and trembled.’”

“Astonishment and awe for some moments rendered us mute, and, like statues, we stood fixed to the spot, with our eyes riveted on the abyss below.”

“Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of a crescent, about two miles in length, from north-east to south-west, nearly a mile in width, and apparently 800 feet deep.”

“The bottom was covered with lava, and the south-west and northern parts of it were one vast flood of burning matter, in a state of terrific ebullition; rolling to and fro its ‘fiery surge’ and flaming billows.”

“Fifty-one conical islands, of varied form and size, containing so many craters, rose either round the edge or from the surface of the burning lake.”

“Twenty-two constantly emitted columns of grey smoke, or pyramids of brilliant flame; and several of these at the same time vomited from their ignited mouths streams of lava, which tolled in blazing torrents down their black indented sides into the boiling mass below.”

“The existence of these conical craters led us to conclude, that the boiling caldron of lava before us did not form the focus of the volcano; that this mass of melted lava was comparatively shallow; and that the basin, in which it was contained was separated, by a stratum of solid matter, from the great volcano abyss, which constantly poured out its melted contents through these numerous craters into this upper reservoir.”

“We were further inclined to this opinion, from the vast columns of vapour continually ascending from the chasms in the vicinity of the sulphur banks and pools of water, for they must have been produced by other fire than that which caused the ebullition in the lava at the bottom of the great crater …”

“… and also by noticing a number of small craters, in vigorous action, situated high up the sides of the great gulf, and apparently quite detached from it.”

“The streams of lava which they emitted rolled down into the lake, and mingled with the melted mass there, which, though thrown up by different apertures, had perhaps been originally fused in one vast furnace.”

“The sides of the gulf before us, although composed, of different strata of ancient lava, were perpendicular for about 400 feet, and rose from a wide horizontal ledge of solid black lava of irregular breadth, but extending completely round.”

“Beneath this ledge the sides sloped gradually towards the burning lake, which, was, as nearly as we could judge, 300 or 400 feet lower. It was evident, that the large crater had been recently filled with liquid lava up to this black ledge, and had, by some subterranean canal, emptied itself into the sea, or upon the low land on the shore.”

“The grey, and in some places apparently calcined, sides of the great crater before us; the fissures which intersected the surface of the plain on which we were standing; the long banks of sulphur on the opposite side of the abyss; the vigorous action of the numerous small craters on its borders …”

“… the dense columns of vapour and smoke, that rose at the north and south end of the plain; together with the ridge of steep rocks by which it was surrounded, rising probably in some places 300 or 400 feet in perpendicular height, presented an immense volcanic panorama, the effect of which was greatly augmented by the constant roaring of the vast furnaces below.”

“After the first feelings of astonishment had subsided, we remained a considerable time contemplating a scene, which it is impossible to describe, and which filled us with wonder and admiration at the almost overwhelming manifestation it affords of the power of that dread Being who created the world, and who has declared that by fire he will one day destroy it.”

“We then walked along the west side of the crater, and in half an hour reached the north end.” (All here is from William Ellis’ Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii.)

January 2, 2024 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Colonizers?

Colonialism is defined as “the act or process of sending people to live in and govern another country.” (Cambridge Dictionary) Merriam-Webster says it is an effort “to take control of (a people or area) especially as an extension of state power: to claim (someone or something) as a colony.”

A review of historical correspondence between the US representative in Hawai‘i, Luther Severance, and US Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, puts a new light on the present spin about ‘colonization’ of Hawai‘i by America. Webster makes clear what the US position is – and it is not colonization of the Islands.

Severance wrote, “There is considerable British interest here. Formerly the King and chiefs put great reliance on the protection of England , which was promised verbally to Liholiho, the immediate predecessor of the present King, when he visited England with several of his chiefs.”

“William IV was then on the British throne, I believe; but since then they have had a great deal of difficulty with Mr. Charlton, the British consul, and some with Gen. Miller, the present consul.”

“So they have also with my predecessors, Brown and Ten Eyck; yet the American interest, missionary, mercantile, and otherwise, is altogether paramount. …”

“Three-fourths, at least, of the business done here is by Americans, and they already own much of the real estate. The sugar-planters are nearly all Americans, and have a strong interest in annexation to the United States, as in that event they will supply our Pacific coast with sugar at an advantage of 30 per cent over all other sugars from the East Indies or elsewhere.”

“The subject of annexation is here often hinted at, and sometimes freely discussed in private; but it is known only to a very few that the King and his Government have the matter under consideration. If the action of the French should precipitate a movement here, I shall be called on, perhaps, to protect the American flag.”

“I was indeed requested to go and see the King on Monday night, and in the presence of the council to give him assurance of protection should he raise the American flag instead of his own; but I preferred to keep away, so as to avoid all appearance of intrigue to bring about a result which, however desirable, and as many believe ultimately inevitable, must still be attended with difficulties and embarrassments.” (Severance, US Commission, No 6, March 11, 1851)

“The King, his chiefs, and ministers, had a consultation at the palace on Monday night, and again on Tuesday night. It was the desire of the chiefs to appeal to Gen. Miller for British protection. This was promised them verbally by William IV, when they were in England. …”

“I find he is beginning to be a little jealous of us. They say he complains of the partiality of the Government to Americans. … Already I hear through a French channel that Perrin has no fear of England in this business.”

“They both see that the natural tendency of events will be to thoroughly Americanize the islands , a process which will go on more rapidly when we get a steam communication with San Francisco.” (Severance, March 12)

US Secretary of State, Damiel Webster, on July 14, 1851 replied to these and other correspondence from Severance, stating, unequivocally, “The Government of the United States was the first to acknowledge the national existence of the Hawaiian Government, and to treat with it as an independent state.”

“Its example was soon followed by several of the Governments of Europe; and the United States, true to its treaty obligations, has in no case interfered with the Hawaiian Government for the purpose of opposing the course of its own independent conduct, or of dictating to it any particular line of policy.”

“In acknowledging the independence of the islands, and of the Government established over them, it was not seeking to promote any peculiar object of its own. What it did, and all that it did, was done openly in the face of day, in entire good faith, and known to all nations.”

“It declared its real purpose to be to favor the establishment of a government at a very important point in the Pacific Ocean, which should be able to maintain such relations with the rest of the world, as are maintained between civilized states.”

“From this purpose it has never swerved for a single moment, nor is it inclined , without the pressure of some necessity, to depart from it now, when events have occurred giving to the islands and to their intercourse with the United States a new aspect and increased importance.”

“This Government still desires to see the nationality of the Hawaiian Government maintained, its independent administration of public affairs respected, and its prosperity and reputation increased.” (Daniel Webster, No 4, July 14, 1851)

Webster then writes to Severance, “You inform us that many American citizens have gone to settle in the islands; if so, they have ceased to be American citizens.” [That doesn’t sound like an organized colonization effort by America.]

“The Government of the United States must, of course, feel an interest in them not extended to foreigners, but by the law of nations they have no right further to demand the protection of this Government.”

“Whatever aid or protection might under any circumstances be given them must be given, not as a matter of right on their part, but in consistency with the general policy and duty of the Government and its relations with friendly powers.”

“You will therefore not encourage in them, nor indeed in any others, any idea or expectation that the islands will become annexed to the United States. All this, I repeat, will be judged of hereafter, as circumstances and events may require, by the Government at Washington.” (Webster, July 14, 1851)

December 31, 2023 by Peter T Young Leave a Comment

Captain William Brown is Killed

A Post Script in a March 3, 1810 letter from Kamehameha to England’s King George III only starts to tell a story …

“PS. My removal from Owyhee to this Island was in consequence of their having put to death Mr. Brown & Mr. Gordon, Masters, (of the Jackall & Prince Le Boo, two of you [sic] merchant vessels.) I have sent by Mr. Jno. Gl Spence Commander of the Ship Duke of Portland, a feather’d cloak & beg your acceptance.”

Kamehameha had been on the Island of Hawai‘i and came to O‘ahu – what happened … ?

These were interesting and turbulent times.

At the time of Cook’s arrival (1778-1779), the Hawaiian Islands were divided into four kingdoms: (1) the island of Hawaiʻi under the rule of Kalaniʻōpuʻu, who also had possession of the Hāna district of east Maui; (2) Maui (except the Hāna district,) Molokai, Lānaʻi and Kahoʻolawe, ruled by Kahekili; (3) Oʻahu, under the rule of Kahahana; and at (4) Kauai and Niʻihau, Kamakahelei was ruler.

Following Kalaniʻōpuʻu’s death in 1782, the kingship was inherited by his son Kīwalaʻō; Kamehameha (Kīwalaʻō’s cousin) was given guardianship of the Hawaiian god of war, Kūkaʻilimoku.

Civil war broke out between Kīwalaʻō’s forces and the various chiefs under the leadership of Kamehameha. At the Battle of Mokuʻōhai (just south of Kealakekua) Kīwalaʻō was killed and Kamehameha gained control of half the Island of Hawaiʻi

On Maui, Kamehameha also battled Kahekili and Kalanikūpule’s forces at a battle at ʻIao (1790). It was described, “They speak of the carnage as frightful, the din and uproar, the shouts of defiance among the fighters, the wailing of the women on the crests of the valley, as something to curdle the blood or madden the brain of the beholder.” (Fornander)

The Maui troops were completely annihilated and it is said that the corpses of the slain were so many as to choke up the waters of the stream of ʻlao, and that hence one of the names of this battle was “Kepaniwai” (the damming of the waters). (Fornander)

Kamakahelei was the Queen of Kauai and Niʻihau, and her husband (Kāʻeokūlani (Kā‘eo) was a younger brother to Kahekili. (With Kāʻeo, Kamakahelei had a son Kaumualiʻi.) Kahekili was plotting for the downfall of Kahahana and the seizure of Oʻahu and Molokai, and the queen of Kauai assisted him.

By 1791, Kahekili, King of Oahu, Molokai and Maui, was on Maui with his brother Kā‘eo, King of Kauai, preparing to resist the threatened invasion of Maui by Kamehameha of Hawai‘i.

Kahekili agreed with Kā‘eo that after his death Kā‘eo was to be regent of Maui and Molokai while Kalanikūpule, the son and heir of Kahekili, was to be King of Maui, Molokai, and Oahu, but was to reside on O‘ahu and allow Kā’eo to govern Maui and Molokai for him.

In 1793, Captain Brown was a British trader, “one of that numerous group of commercial adventurers who flocked into the north Pacific Ocean in the wake of Cook, drawn thither by the chance discovery, as one result of the last expedition led by that great navigator, of the possibilities of wealth in the fur trade between China and the coast of America.” (Kuykendall)

Brown’s three-vessel trading squadron included the ‘Butterworth’ (under Captain Brown,) ‘Prince Lee Boo’ (under Captain Gordon) and the ‘Jackal’ (under the command of Captain Alexander Stewart.)

At Maui Captain Brown seems to have entered into some sort of a politico-commercial agreement with Kahekili. Brown “had left the Isld, only a fortnight before we arrived had given them a number of Muskets, a very large quantity of Powder, and two pieces of Cannon (4 pounders)”. (Boit)

However, for these weapons, Boit says that Kahekili had “given to him the whole right & property of the Islands Woahoo (O‘ahu) & Atooi (Kauai)”. Later, Kamakau notes Kalanikūpule bargained for Brown’s assistance for “four hundred hogs”.

In July 1794, Kahekili died and, according to the prior arrangement, Kalanikūpule took control of O‘ahu and Kā‘eo ruled over Maui and Kauai.

Kā‘eo, who was residing on Maui, decided to return to Kauai. On the way he stopped with a considerable force on the northeast coast of O‘ahu, across the mountains from Waikiki, the capitol of the island.

Some fighting took place between his followers and those of Kalanikūpule, but this trouble was settled by a personal conference between the two chiefs, and Kā‘eo continued on around the island to Waianae, the usual point of departure for Kauai.

While resting here Kā‘eo learned of a plot among his warriors directed against himself. In this emergency he resorted to a measure not infrequently used by more civilized generals. He proposed an immediate attack on Kalanikūpule and the conquest of O‘ahu.

The plot collapsed and his followers rallied about him with enthusiasm, augmented in numbers by several bands of disaffected Oahuans. The advance toward Waikiki was begun at once and within a few days the two armies were in contact west of Honolulu. (Kuykendall)

Kalanikūpule at once engaged Captain Brown to aid him in this war (in return for four hundred hogs.) A battle was fought on the plains of Puʻunahawele in which some foreigners were killed by Mare Amara. Kalanikūpule was forced to retreat. Six days later, another battle was fought in which Kāʻeo was again victorious.

On December 12, 1794, a great battle was fought; Kalanikūpule himself with the main army held the middle ground between ʻAiea and the taro patches; Captain Brown’s men were in boats guarding the shoreline.

Thus surrounded, Kāʻeo with six of his men escaped into a ravine below ʻAiea and might have disappeared there had not the red of his feather cloak been seen from the boats at sea and their shots drawn the attention of those on land. Hemmed in from above, Kāʻeo was killed. (Kamakau)

Toward the end of December a plot was formed among the natives for the seizure of the two vessels (Jackal and Prince Lee Boo.) On the first day of January, 1795, the plan was put in place.

The Englishmen being thus scattered and the vessels almost deserted, except for the two captains, who remained on board.

“Capt. Brown was walking the poop, by himself, when one of ye Savages gets up on the poop, & made a pass at the Good old Captain with an Iron dagger, which he fend’d of, & seizd a Swivell worm & drove the fellow of, he was soon followed by a number more which the captain likewise beat of …”

“… but at last he was overpower’d by numbers, & receiv’d a fatal stab in the back of the neck and was pitch’d from the poop on to the main deck where he soon expir’d, & so by there savage artfulness they got possession of both Vessells without the loss of a man on there side, in the mean time they had seiz’d the Boats & People that where on shore”. (Boit; Kuykendall)

Being in possession of the two ships, with a large quantity of arms and ammunition, Kalanikūpule and his advisers conceived this to be an opportune moment for striking a decisive blow at Kamehameha.

The surviving members of the crews were compelled, under guard, to fit the vessels for sea, and when all was ready the king and his chiefs went on board and the ships were warped out of Fairhaven harbor and anchored in Waikiki bay.

The next day Mr. Bonallack, mate of the Prince Lee Boo, and Mr. Lamport, mate of the Jackal, agreed upon a plan for retaking the vessels that night. It was a desperate venture but the attempt was entirely successful, the natives on board being killed or driven off, with the exception of the king, queen, and three or four of their personal attendants.

The ships immediately put to sea, but at daybreak they again came near the shore and, after placing the king and queen in a canoe with one attendant, made all sail for the island of Hawaii, and from there, after procuring supplies, took their departure for Canton.

In 1795 Kamehameha sailed from his home island of Hawaiʻi with an army of thousands of warriors, including a handful of non-Hawaiian foreigners to battle Kalanikūpule.

The war apparently ends with some of Kalanikūpule’s warriors pushed/jumping off the Pali. When the Pali Highway was being built, excavators counted approximately 800-skulls, believed to be the remains of the warriors who were defeated by Kamehameha.

Within less than five months after the death of Captain Brown, Kamehameha over-ran Maui and Molokai, defeated Kalanikūpule in the great battle of Nuʻuanu, and became ruler of all the islands except Kauai. (Kuykendall)

Kamehameha launched his first invasion attempt on Kauai in April of 1796, having already conquered the other Hawaiian Islands, and having fought his last major battle at Nuʻuanu on O‘ahu in 1795.

Kauai’s opposing factions (Kaumuali‘i versus Keawe) were extremely vulnerable as they had been weakened by fighting each other (Keawe died and Kaumuali‘i was, ultimately, ruler of Kauai and Ni‘ihau.) Kamehameha’s two attempts at invading Kauai were foiled (by storm and sickness.) The island was never conquered.

Then, on March 3, 1810, Kamehameha wrote his letter to King George – this summary explains how/why he moved to O‘ahu.

Then, in April of 1810, at Pākākā, Kamehameha’s compound at Honolulu Harbor, negotiations between King Kaumuali‘i and Kamehameha I took place; facing the threat of a further invasion, Kaumualiʻi yielded to Kamehameha. The agreement marked the end of war and thoughts of war across the islands.